Fake news: cómo entender la evolución del engaño mediático
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12795/Ambitos.2021.i54.07Palabras clave:
noticias falsas, desinformación, periodismoResumen
Las noticias falsas y la manipulación de la información no son fenómenos nuevos. Sin embargo, las particulares circunstancias tecnosociales de nuestro tiempo han creado un contexto muy favorable para su creciente visibilidad. Este artículo propone una revisión no sistemática de la literatura, articulando y problematizando dimensiones que contribuyan a una comprensión más profunda del momento actual, así como de las condiciones que delimitan este camino. Partiendo de la dimensión historiográfica de la mentira mediada por la prensa, se analiza el proceso que llevó a la aparición de la falsedad como consecuencia de la rápida evolución del periodismo. Posteriormente, se propone su encuadramiento en el complejo contexto de la sociedad red, en el que se han planteado retos a los que los periodistas y las empresas de comunicación han tardado en responder. La dinámica cognitiva del individuo, que hoy tiene acceso a una cantidad de información sin precedentes, también se aborda como parte de la problematización multidimensional que aquí se propone. Al abordar un contexto que podemos clasificar como promotor de una sobredosis informativa permanente e implacable, este artículo no pretende responder a preguntas sobre la cuantificación de los impactos de la desinformación. Más bien, hace hincapié en las complejas interrelaciones que, a lo largo de los años, han dado forma a un problema que, en última instancia, es un reto de civilización.
Descargas
Métricas
Citas
Aguaded, I. e Romero-Rodríguez, L. (2015). Mediamorfosis y desinformación en la infoesfera: Alfabetización mediática, digital e informacional ante los cambios de hábitos de consumo informativo. Education in the knowledge society, 16(1), 44-57.
Aguaded, I. e Romero-Rodríguez, L. (Eds.) (2018). Competencias mediáticas en medios digitales emergentes. Comunicación Social Ediciones y Publicaciones.
Atkins, S. E. (2009). Holocaust denial as an international movement. Praeger.
Allcott, H. e Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211-36.
Antonio, R. J. e Brulle, R. J. (2011). The unbearable lightness of politics: Climate change denial and political polarization. The Sociological Quarterly, 52(2), 195-202.
Bakir, V. e McStay, A. (2017). Fake news and the economy of emotions. Digital Journalism 6(2), 1-22.
Bakshy, E., Messing, S. e Adamic, L. A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook. Science 348(6239), 1130–32.
Barnes, J. A. (1994). A pack of lies: Towards a sociology of lying. Cambridge University Press.
Baudrillard, J. (1991). Simulacros e simulação. Relógio d’Agua.
Berinsky, A. J. (2017). Rumors and health care reform: Experiments in political misinformation. British Journal of Political Science, 47(2), 241-262.
Blum, S. D. (2005). Five approaches to explaining “Truth” and “Deception” in human communication. Journal of Anthropological Research, 61(3), 289-315.
Bohn, R. e Short, J. (2012). Measuring consumer information. International Journal of Communication, 6, 980–1000.
Bok, S. (1979). Lying. Moral choice in public and private life. Vintage Books.
Borden, S. e Tew, C. (2007). The role of journalist and the performance of journalism: Ethical lessons from ‘fake’ news (seriously). Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 22(4), 300-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/08900520701583586
Bougnoux, D. (1995). La Communication contre l´information. Hachette.
Bovet, A. e Maske, H. A. (2019). Influence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election. Nature Communications, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07761-2
Boyd, d. (2017, January 5). Did media literacy backfire? Data & Society: Points. Retrieved from https://points.datasociety.net/did-media-literacy-backfire-7418c084d88d
Brady, H. (2019). The challenge of big data and data science. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 297-323.
Bryant, E. (2008). Real lies, white lies, and gray lies: Towards a typology of deception. Kaleidoscope: A Graduate Journal of Qualitative Communication Research, 7, 23-48.
Bruns, A. (2019). Are filter bubbles real? Polity Press.
Castells, M. (1996). The rise of the network society, the information age: Economy, society and culture, Vol. I. Oxford: Blackwell.
Castells, M. (1997a). An introduction to the information age. City: Analysis of urban trends, culture, theory, policy, action, 2(7), 6-16.
Castells, M. (1997b). The power of identity, the information age: Economy, society and culture, Vol. II. Blackwell.
Castells, M. (2005). The network society: from knowledge to policy. In M. Castells e G. Cardoso, (Eds.) The network society: From knowledge to policy (3-22). Johns Hopkins Center for Transatlantic Relations.
Chigwedere, P., Seage, G. R., Gruskin, S., Lee, T.-H. e Essex, M. (2008). Estimating the lost benefits of antiretroviral drug use in South Africa. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 49(4), 410–415.
Creech, B. e Roessner, A. (2019). Declaring the value of truth. Journalism Practice, 13(3), 263-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2018.1472526
Darnton, C. (2017, 13 de fevereiro). The true history of fake news. The New York Review. https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2017/02/13/the-true-history-of-fake-news/?lp_txn_id=1021367
Davis, S. e Straubhaar, J. (2020). Producing Antipetismo: Media activism and the rise of the radical, nationalist right in contemporary Brazil. International Communication Gazette, 82(1), 82–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048519880731
Debord, G. (2003). A sociedade do espectáculo. Contraponto.
Del-Vicario, M., Bessi, A., Zollo, F., Petroni, F., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Stanley, H. e Quattrociocchi, W. (2016). The spreading of misinformation online. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(3), 554-559. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517441113
Dubois, E. e Blank, G. (2018). The echo chamber is overstated: The moderating effect of political interest and diverse media, Information. Communication e Society, 21(5), 729-745. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1428656
European Commission (2018). A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation. Report of the Independent High-Level Group on Fake News and Online Disinformation. European Union. https://doi.org/10.2759/739290.
Faris, R. M., Roberts, H. Etling, B., Bourassa, N., Zuckerman, E. e Benkler, Y. (2017). Partisanship, propaganda, and disinformation: Online media and the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Berkman Klein Center for Internet e Society Research Paper.
Figueira, J. e Santos, S. (2019). Percepción de las noticias falsas en universitarios de Portugal: Análisis de su consumo y actitudes”. El profesional de la información, 28(3), e280315. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2019.may.15
Fink, K. (2019). The biggest challenge facing journalism: A lack of trust. Journalism, 20(1), 40-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918807069
Flaherty, D. K. (2011). The vaccine-autism connection: A public health crisis caused by unethical medical practices and fraudulent science. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 45(10), 1302–1304.
Flaxman, S., Goel, S. e Rao, J. M. (2016). Filter bubbles, echo chambers, and online news consumption. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(S1), 298-320. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw006
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge. Selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977. Pantheon Books.
Freeden, M. (1996). Ideologies and political theory: A conceptual approach. Clarendon Press.
Freeden, M. (1998). Is nationalism a distinct ideology? Political Studies, XLVI, 748-765.
Gorbach, J. (2018). Not your grandpa’s hoax: A comparative history of fake news. American Journalism, 35(2), 236-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/08821127.2018.1457915
Guess, A., Nyhan, B. e Reifler, J. (2018). Selective exposure to misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. European Research Council.
Hansen, G. J. e Kim, H. (2011). Is the media biased against me? A meta-analysis of the hostile media effect research. Communication Research Reports, 28(2), 169-179. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2011.565280
Hetherington, M. J. e Weiler, J. D. (2009). Authoritarianism and polarization in American politics. Cambridge University Press.
Holan, A. D. (2016, 13 de dezembro). Lie of the year: Fake news. Politifact. https://www.politifact.com/article/2016/dec/13/2016-lie-year-fake-news/
Jaiswal J., LoSchiavo C. e Perlman. D (2020). Disinformation, misinformation and inequality - Driven mistrust in the time of COVID-19: Lessons unlearned from AIDS denialism. AIDS and Behavior, 24, 2776–2780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02925-y
Jenkins, H. (2008). Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York University Press.
Kalichman, S. C. (2009). Denying AIDS: Conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, and human tragedy. Springer.
Kellner, D. (2003). Media spectacle. Routledge.
Kovach, B. e Rosenstiel, T. (2014). The elements of Journalism: What newspeople should know and the public should expect. Three Rivers Press.
Krafft, T., Gamer, M. e Zweig, K. (2017. What did you see?
Personalization, regionalization and the question of the filter bubble in Google’s search engine. Proceedings of ACM Conference, Washington.
Kumar, S. e Shah, N. (2018). False information on web and social media: A survey. arXiv preprint arXiv:1804.08559.
Lévy, P. (1997). Collective intelligence: Mankind’s emerging world in cyberspace. Plenum Trade.
Lévy, P. (2015) Collective intelligence for educators. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(8), 749-754. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2015.1053734
Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. e Oberauer, K. (2013). The role of conspiracist ideation and worldviews in predicting rejection of science. Plos one, 10(8), e0134773. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075637
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. e Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the ‘post-truth’ era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, Volume 6(4), 353-369.
Love, R. (2007). Before Jon Stewart. Columbia journalism review, 45(6), 33-37.
Malone, T. e Bernstein M. (2015). Handbook of collective intelligence. MIT Press.
Manjoo, F. (2008). True enough: Learning to live in a post-fact society. Wiley and Sons.
Marr, B. (2018, 21 de maio). How much data do we create every day? The mind-blowing stats everyone should read. Forbes.
McCarty, N., Poole, K. e Rosenthal, H. (2016). Polarized America. MIT Press.
Mcchesney, R. (2003). The problem of journalism: A political economic contribution to an explanation of the crisis in contemporary US journalism, Journalism Studies, 4(3), 299-329. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616700306492
McCornack, S. (1992). Information manipulation theory. Communication Monographs, 59(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759209376245
McCright, A. M. e Dunlap, R. E. (2011). The politicization of climate change and polarization in the American public’s views of global warming, 2001–2010. The Sociological Quarterly, 52(2), 155-194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2011.01198.x
McIntyre, L. (2018). Post-truth. MIT Press.
Mihailidis, P. e Viotty, S. (2017). Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: Civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in ‘post-fact’ society. American behavioral scientist, 61(4), 441-454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217701217
Mudde, C. (2007). Populist radical right parties in Europe. Cambridge University Press.
Muller, J.-W. (2016). What is populism. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Nerone, J. (1987). The mythology of the penny press. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 4(4), 376-404. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295038709360146
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303-330.
Olsson, T. (2010). From the ecology of broadcasting to the ecology of participation: Critical reflections. Nordicom Review, 31, 95-104.
Pandita, R. (2017). Internet: A change agent an overview of internet penetration e growth across the world. International Journal of Information Dissemination and Technology, 7(2), 83-91.
Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the internet is hiding from you. Viking.
Park, R. (1940). News as a form of knowledge: A chapter in the sociology of knowledge. American Journal of Sociology, 45(5), 669-686.
Pennycook, G. e Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39-50.
Poole, K., e Rosenthal, H. (1984). The polarization of American politics. The Journal of Politics, 46(4), 1061-1079.
Prior, H. (2019). Em nome do povo: O populismo e o novo ecossistema mediático. In: J. Figueira, e S. Santos (Eds.) As fake news e a nova ordem (des)informativa na era da pós-verdade (123-146). Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra.
Ross, A. S. e Rivers, D. J. (2018). Discursive deflection: Accusation of ‘Fake News’ and the spread of mis and disinformation in the tweets of president Trump. Social Media + Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118776010
Roggenkamp, K. (2013). Elizabeth Jordan, ‘True Stories of the News’, and
newspaper fiction in late-nineteenth-century journalism. In: M. Canada (Ed.) Literature and Journalism: Inspirations, intersections, and inventions from Ben Franklin to Stephen Colbert (119-142). Pallgrave Macmillan.
Romero-Rodríguez, L. M., Valle-Razo, A. e Torres-Toukoumidis, A. (2018). Hacia una construcción conceptual de las fake news: Epistemologías y tipologías de las nuevas formas de desinformación. In: M. J. Pérez-Serrano, G. Alcolea-Díaz e A. I., Nogales-Bocio, (Eds.), Poder y medios en las sociedades del siglo XXI (259-273). Egregius.
Russell, J. C. e Blackburn, T. (2017). The rise of invasive species denialism. Trends in Ecology e Evolution, 32(1), 3-6.
Schmid, P. e Betsch, C. (2019). Effective strategies for rebutting science denialism in public discussions. Nature Human Behaviour, 3, 931–939.
Schudson, M. (1978) Discovering the news: A social history of American newspapers. Basic Books.
Sezen-Barrie, A., Shea, N. e Borman, J. (2019). Probing into the sources of ignorance: science teachers’ practices of constructing arguments or rebuttals
to denialism of climate change. Environmental Education Research, 25(6), 846-866. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2017.1330949
Shao, C., Ciampaglia, G. L., Varol, O., Yang, K.-C., Flammini, A. e Menczer, F. (2016). The spread of low-credibility content by social bots. Nature Communications, 9, 4787.
Spencer, D. R. (2007). The yellow journalism. The press and America’s emergence as a world power. Northwestern University Press.
Sunstein, C. (2007). Republic.com 2.0. Princeton University Press.
Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z.-W. e Ling, R. (2018). Defining ‘fake news’. Digital journalism, 6(2), 137-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
Tandoc, E. C., Lim, D. e Ling, R. (2020). Diffusion of disinformation: How social media users respond to fake news and why. Journalism, 21(3), 381, 389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919868325
Tewksbury, D., Weaver, A. J. e Maddex, B. D. (2001). Accidentally informed: News exposure on the world wide web. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 78(3), 533-554.
Thornton, B. (2000). The Moon hoax: Debates about ethics in 1835 New York newspapers. Journal of mass media ethics, 15(2), 89-100. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327728JMME1502_3
Toffler, A. (1981). The third wave: Bantam Books.
Tucher, A. (1994). Froth and scum: Truth, beauty, goodness, and the ax murder in America’s first mass medium. North Carolina Press.
Tucher, A. (2013). The true, the false, and the ‘not exactly lying’: Making fakes and telling stories in the age of the real thing. In: M. Canada (Ed.), Literature and journalism: Inspirations, intersections, and inventions from Ben Franklin to Stephen Colbert (91-118). Palgrave MacMillan.
Tucker, J., Guess, A., Barberá, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich, S., Stukal, D. e Nyhan, B. (2018). Social media, political polarization, and political disinformation: A review of the scientific literature. Menlo Park: William Flora Hewlett Foundation. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3144139.
Uberti, D. (15 de dezembro 2016). The real history of fake news. Columbia journalism review. https://www.cjr.org/special_report/fake_news_history.php
Umbelino, L. A. (2019). Para acabar de vez com as boas notícias. Elogio das pequenas coerências e da justa complexidade. In: J. Figueira e S. Santos (Eds.), As fake news e a nova ordem (des)informativa na era da pós-verdade (167-176). Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra.
Wegner, D. M., Coulton, G. F. e Wenzlaff, R. (1985). The transparency of denial: Briefing in the debriefing program. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 338-346.
Wei, K. K., Teo, H. H., Chan, H. C. e Tan, B. C. (2011). Conceptualizing and testing a social cognitive model of the digital divide. Information Systems Research, 22(1), 170– 87.
Zhou, X. e Zafarani, R. (2018). Fake news: A survey of research, detection methods, and opportunities. arXiv preprint arXiv:1812.00315.
Zmigrod, L., Eisenberg, I., Bisset, P., Robbins, T. e Poldrack, R. (2021). The cognitive and perceptual correlates of ideological attitudes: A data-driven approach. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 376(1822). http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0424
Descargas
Publicado
Cómo citar
Número
Sección
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2021 Silvio Santos
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0.
Ámbitos. Revista Internacional de Comunicación es una revista de acceso abierto, lo que significa que todo su contenido está disponible gratuitamente para el usuario o su institución. Los usuarios pueden leer, descargar, copiar, distribuir, imprimir, buscar o enlazar con el texto completo de los artículos, o utilizarlos para cualquier otro fin lícito, sin solicitar permiso previo al editor o al autor. Esta definición de acceso abierto se ajusta a la Iniciativa de Acceso Abierto de Budapest (BOAI).
A menos que se indique lo contrario, todo el contenido de la edición electrónica se distribuye bajo una " licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 ". Puede consultar la versión informativa y el texto legal de la licencia aquí. Esto debe indicarse expresamente de esta manera cuando sea necesario.
En caso de aceptación del manuscrito, los autores ceden los derechos de la obra para su publicación a Ámbitos. Revista Internacional de Comunicación bajo el contrato de licencia Reconocimiento-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0 Internacional (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). Los autores conservan los derechos de autor y terceros están autorizados a copiar, distribuir y hacer uso de la obra, siempre que cumplan con los términos y condiciones establecidos en la licencia.
- Citar la autoría y la fuente original de publicación (revista, editorial y URL de la obra).
- No los utilice con fines comerciales.
- Si remezcla, transforma o crea a partir del material, debe publicar sus contribuciones bajo la misma licencia que el original.
Se puede encontrar más información en https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.es
- Resumen 1687
- pdf 249
