Desarrollo y Evaluación Psicométrica
del Inventario Multigrupal de Identidad Étnica
|
Suherman Suherman[1] University of
Szeged (Hungary) |
|
|
Tibor Vidákovich |
Abstract
Despite widespread use, there is limited research evaluating the
psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the Multigroup Ethnic
Identity Inventory (MEI2) across diverse populations. Current approaches to
measuring Ethnic Identity often lack relevance to diverse cultural contexts,
especially in the Indonesian context and among secondary students. This study
investigates the psychometric properties of the MEI2 among Indonesian secondary
school students representing diverse ethnic backgrounds. The participants
consisted of 276 secondary school students (60.1% female; 39.9% male).
Confirmatory factor analysis verified the validity of the MEI2, with the
goodness-of-fit index indicating that the model was economical and reasonable.
Furthermore, the correlation between the three domains revealed a significant
positive relationship. The findings support the MEI2 as a valid instrument for
assessing students' ethnic identity in this specific context. The contribution
of this research is to be fostering diverse-friendly learning environments and
supports educators in acknowledging and embracing the complexities of students'
ethnic identities within Indonesian cultural landscapes.
Resumen
A pesar
de su uso generalizado, hay una investigación limitada que evalúa las
propiedades psicométricas y la invariancia de medida del Inventario Multigrupal
de Identidad Étnica (MEI2) en diversas poblaciones. Los enfoques actuales para
medir la Identidad Étnica a menudo carecen de relevancia en contextos
culturales diversos, especialmente en el contexto indonesio y entre estudiantes
de secundaria. Este estudio investiga las propiedades psicométricas del MEI2
entre estudiantes de secundaria indonesios que representan diversos orígenes
étnicos. Los participantes consistieron en 276 estudiantes de secundaria (60.1%
mujeres; 39.9% hombres). El análisis factorial confirmatorio verificó la
validez del MEI2, con el índice de bondad de ajuste indicando que el modelo era
económico y razonable. Además, la correlación entre los tres dominios reveló
una relación positiva significativa. Los hallazgos apoyan al MEI2 como un
instrumento válido para evaluar la identidad étnica de los estudiantes en este
contexto específico. La contribución de esta investigación es fomentar entornos
de aprendizaje amigables con la diversidad y apoyar a los educadores en el
reconocimiento y la aceptación de las complejidades de las identidades étnicas
de los estudiantes dentro de los paisajes culturales indonesios.
Palabras
clave / Keywords
Afirmación y Pertenencia, Logro de Identidad
Étnica, Pertenencia Étnica, Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio, Etnicidad.
Affirmation
and Belonging, Ethnic Identity Achievement, Ethnic Belonging, Confirmatory
Factor Analysis, Ethnicity.
1. Introduction
Ethnic identity serves as a crucial protective factor across different
ethnic groups and development stages during adolescence in school education
(D’hondt et al., 2021; Fisher et al., 2020; Lai et al., 2024). Moreover, it is
a significant determinant of psychological well-being within ethnic minority
communities (Balidemaj & Small, 2019; Rivas‐Drake et al., 2014). Specifically, the
strength of ethnic identification correlates with heightened self-esteem,
positive personal growth, and individual competence (Kim et al., 2014). Drawing
upon Burke & Stets (2022) conceptualization, identity is understood as a
multifaceted construct shaped by diverse orientations, values, and beliefs,
ultimately culminating in a commitment to one's ethnicity (Stryker & Burke,
2000). Conversely, social identity theory posits that ego identification, the
core component, is intertwined with a sense of belonging to a social group,
thus imbuing it with inherent value (Delia, 2015). Consequently, Phinney (1992)
suggests that over time, ethnic identity evolves into a complex, multi-layered
construct, with integral processes encompassing the evaluation of ethnic
significance and an individual's allegiance to their ethnic or cultural group.
Researchers define ethnic identity as an individual's self-perception formed by
their awareness of belonging to an ethnic group and the emotional importance
they associate with that membership (Tajfel, 1981).
Ethnicity encompasses complex classifications such as White, Black, Asian
Pacific Islander, and Hispanic/Latino, which are deeply intertwined with
biological, economic, and sociocultural factors (Gee et al., 2022; Johnson et
al., 2019). These factors collectively influence psychological experiences in
profound and multifaceted ways (Chemers et al., 2011; Phinney et al., 1997;
Phinney & Ong, 2007; Wilson, 2017). Genetic predispositions specific to
certain ethnic groups can significantly impact mental health vulnerabilities
and stress responses. Additionally, economic disparities, manifested in varying
levels of socioeconomic status and access to quality education and employment,
play a crucial role in shaping psychological well-being. Furthermore, sociocultural
elements, including cultural identity, experiences of discrimination, and
culturally specific coping mechanisms, profoundly influence individual and
collective psychological experiences (Phinney, 1996). Ethnic minorities
frequently encounter systemic discrimination and microaggressions, contributing
to heightened stress, anxiety, and depression. Conversely, cultural strengths
such as community support and collective resilience offer protective
psychological benefits, buffering against the negative impacts of
discrimination and economic adversity.
Goffman explicitly identified “race” (Goffman, 1969), “religion”
(Goffman, 2023), and “nationality” (Goffman, 2008) as three distinct components
of ethnicity. Furthermore, Goffman (2009) contended that individuals classified
by society as members of racial, religious, or national minority groups are
likely to be stigmatized by those outside these groups. This stigmatization
often leads to social marginalization, exclusion, and discrimination, impacting
individuals' mental health, social standing, and overall quality of life
(Gaines Jr et al., 2013). The strength of one's ethnic identity may be
influenced by factors such as upbringing, cultural practices, community
environment, and personal experiences. In some cases, individuals may strongly
identify with their ethnic group, valuing and preserving its cultural
traditions and language. On the other hand, the concept of a national identity
is also significant and can be reinforced through education, patriotic symbols,
and national events. Religious identity is another crucial aspect. Some
individuals may prioritize their religious identity over ethnic identity or see
them as interconnected. It's important to note that identity is a complex and
multifaceted concept, and individuals may navigate and negotiate their various
identities based on different contexts and life stages. Moreover, the interplay
between ethnic, national, and religious identities can be dynamic and may
evolve over time.
Phinney (1996) delineates three key dimensions pertaining to ethnic
groups, which involve the differentiation of their defining characteristics.
These characteristics may include a shared cultural heritage, collective group
experiences, and a sense of social identity. Conversely, individuals within the
same ethnic group may exhibit variations in how they express and perceive their
ethnicity. While certain attributes of ethnicity may be unique to specific
groups or individuals, there are also commonalities that cut across all ethnic
groups. As Phinney (1996) elucidates, individuals from any ethnic background
can possess a distinct cultural legacy that diverges from their contemporary
cultural environment, face differential treatment based on their ethnicity, and
maintain an identity that emphasizes their ethnic group affiliation.
Essentially, comprehending the pathways conducive to fostering healthy
personalities within this diverse population is imperative (Jackson et al.,
2020). Individuals distinguish themselves from one another based on various
factors, with ethnicity often serving as a useful classification in coping with
daily life events. The defining feature of an ethnic group lies in the shared
acknowledgment among its members of its unique identity and cohesive nature
(Albert, 2014). Consequently, inquiries about membership in an ethnic group
typically assume a singular interpretation without considering individual
perspectives (Hamer et al., 2020).
These objectives demonstrated the necessity for tools and measures to
assess ethnic identity. Empirical research underscores the direct correlation
between ethnic identity and significant outcome variables, such as coping
strategies for prejudice ((Litam & Oh, 2022; Villegas-Gold & Yoo, 2014;
Yoo & Lee, 2005), self-worth (Gummadam et al., 2016), and psychological
well-being (Ajibade et al., 2016). However, findings vary based on how ethnic
identity is conceptualized and measured (Dimitrova et al., 2018; Phinney et
al., 1997; Sladek et al., 2020). Therefore, developing valid and reliable
methods for assessing this construct is imperative. The study of ethnic
identity has garnered significant attention in research circles due to its
crucial role in identity formation and psychological well-being (Rivas‐Drake et al., 2014). Phinney (1992) developed
the "Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM)," a 14-item tool
designed to assess various components of ethnic identity, such as positive
ethnic attitudes, sense of belonging, ethnic identity achievement, and ethnic
behaviors. The MEIM assesses the exploration and commitment to an ethnic
identity, focusing on feelings of belonging and participation in cultural
events, typically across various ethnic groups. It does not account for the
specific historical, religious, cultural, or social experiences unique to any
single ethnic group. The MEIM subscales evaluate ethnic identity exploration,
affirmation, belonging, and commitment to a particular ethnic group. Initially,
the scale comprised three subscales: (a) affirmation or belonging, (b) ethnic
identity achievement, and (c) ethnic behaviors. The MEIM has been validated
with middle school, high school, and college populations, including Mexican
American, African American, Chinese, Australian, Armenian, and European
American samples in the United States and internationally (Lee & Yoo, 2004;
Worrell, 2000; Worrell et al., 2004). However, the validation primarily
involved US populations. We are now aiming to extend this research by focusing
on a sample from secondary education in Indonesia.
Initially, Phinney (1992) proposed that all items in the Multigroup
Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) loaded onto a single ethnic identification
factor. However, subsequent empirical investigations revealed a two-factor
structure. Dandy et al. (2008) identified two distinct yet closely related
factors: affirmation, belonging, and commitment (consisting of seven items),
and exploration (comprising five items). Notably, even though the MEIM was
measured on a two-scale basis in the US sample, Phinney & Ong (2007) viewed
group membership as developing over time and occurring when individuals
explore, understand, and commit to an ethnic group. Recent studies have
corroborated the MEIM's two-dimensional structure (Yap et al., 2014); however,
alternative three-factor models have also been described (Fisher et al., 2020;
Gaines Jr et al., 2010, 2013). Therefore, it is worth investigating whether a
three-scale model may be appropriate in the Indonesian context. The
multiplicity of factors identified across diverse samples suggests that the
underlying construct of ethnic identity may be composed of several facets,
including affirmation or belonging, ethnic identity achievement, and ethnic
belonging.
To overcome this disparity and enhance the content and face validity of
the scale, Phinney & Ong (2007) established the “Multigroup Ethnic Identity
Measure-Revised (MEIM-R)”. It comprises two subscales (i.e., “Exploration (3
items) and Commitment (3 items)”) and consists of a subset of the 12-item MEIM
and one additional item. Additionally, Barry (2002) on the development of an
ethnic identity scale for East Asian immigrants demonstrates the importance of
considering the multidimensional nature of ethnic identity and its interaction
with social and cultural factors. However, one limitation of Barry's study is
that it focused specifically on East Asian immigrants, and the results may not
be generalizable to other ethnic groups or to non-immigrant populations.
Despite the widespread use of the MEIM-R, “only a handful of research
have evaluated its psychometric properties and measurement invariance to
establish consistency in the concept of ethnic identity across diverse national
and international populations”. These findings provided support for an
interrelated two-factor construct of investigation and duty (Blozis & Villarreal,
2014; Habibi et al., 2021; Maehler et al., 2019; Musso et al., 2018),
unfortunately there were contradictory findings in terms of MI, which is
essential for practical comparisons of groups. Musso et al. (2018) and Habibi
et al. (2021) reported the presence of MI in a variety of adult European
populations and Iranian context, respectively. Maehler et al. (2019) reported
that exploration and commitment were moderately positively connected with life
satisfaction levels for national (German) identification, but no such
correlation was seen for ethnic identity, while Maehler et al. (2019)
discovered that after correcting for behaviours, all but one of the impacts of
attitudinal ethnic identity were no longer significant, indicating that
attitudes were not predictive of responder behavior, even the attitude are
important to daily live (Suherman & Vidákovich, 2022).
Overall, these results imply the necessity for continued psychometric
testing of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Inventory (MEI2), especially with
secondary student populations. This is
crucial in secondary education due to the complex nature of identity formation
in adolescents. Adolescents undergo significant developmental changes, making
it necessary to ensure the assessment tool accurately measures ethnic
identity's nuances. According to Bandura (2013), this theory suggests that
adolescents' beliefs about their ability to understand and navigate their
ethnic identity can influence their engagement in the process. Robust testing
allows for adjustments to account for developmental factors, ensuring the
MEI2's validity across diverse student populations. This ongoing evaluation
supports its relevance in informing educational policies and interventions
aimed at promoting cultural inclusivity and positive identity development among
secondary students.
Furthermore, existing research predominantly originates from
heterogeneous cultures with extensive immigration histories, such as the United
States, Canada, and Europe. However, there remains a dearth of data concerning
the Indonesian context. This gap in the literature is compounded by the limited
utilization of samples from Italy, the United States, and Canada in evaluating
instruments like the MEI2. To comprehensively understand the nuances of ethnic
identity within diverse cultural contexts, it is imperative to gather data from
a broad spectrum of cultural backgrounds. Instruments developed and validated
solely within European countries may not fully capture the complexities of
ethnic identity when applied to Asian cultures, including Indonesia.
This study seeks to address these gaps in the literature by examining the
psychometric properties of the MEI2 among Indonesian secondary students,
representing a diverse array of ethnic backgrounds. By focusing on an
Indonesian context that has been relatively understudied in the realm of ethnic
identity research, we aim to provide insights that are more representative and
inclusive. Additionally, by adapting and validating the MEI2 questionnaire for
use in the Indonesian context, we contribute to the development of culturally
sensitive instruments that can accurately capture the nuances of ethnic
identity within this specific cultural milieu.
Building upon these foundational insights, the primary aim of this study
was to assess the psychometric properties of the MEI2 among Indonesian
secondary students representing diverse ethnic backgrounds. Our investigation
hones in on three key dimensions of ethnic identity - 'affirmation belonging',
'ethnic identity achievement', and 'ethnic belonging' - with the objective of
offering a nuanced comprehension of the intricate nature of ethnic identity.
These dimensions have garnered considerable attention in prior scholarship as
pivotal elements in the development of ethnic identity and its ramifications
for individuals' psychological well-being, as well as its interplay with
various social and cultural influences. While Phinney & Ong (2007)
initially proposed a two-dimensional structure, recent scholarship underscores
the importance of considering all three dimensions (Fisher et al., 2020; Gaines
Jr et al., 2010, 2013). To achieve this, we evaluated the factor structure and
internal consistency reliabilities of the MEI2 questionnaire, which we adapted
for use in the Indonesian context. By tailoring the MEI2 questionnaire to suit
the Indonesian cultural milieu, we aim to provide insights gleaned from
secondary school students across Indonesia, thereby enriching our understanding
of ethnic identity within this specific demographic context. Particularly, we
formulated the following research questions in this study: (1) Is the MEI2
questionnaire’s valid and reliable in a sample of secondary education?; (2)
Does the MEI2 questionnaire’s meet the model fit criteria?; (3) What is the
relationship between a affirmation and belonging, ethnic identity achievement,
and ethnic belonging to provide identity among student in secondary education?.
Through this approach, our study to enrich the understanding of ethnic identity
and its implications for psychological well-being in the Indonesian context,
while also contributing to the broader cross-cultural literature on ethnic
identity assessment.
2. Theoretical Backgorund
2.1. Affirmation and Belonging
Affirmation and belonging are crucial dimensions in ethnic identity
development, significantly enhancing psychological well-being and social
integration, particularly among diverse populations. Research by Phinney et al.
(2001) highlights that individuals who feel a strong sense of belonging to
their ethnic group experience higher self-esteem and greater life satisfaction.
This sense of community provides a buffer against the negative effects of
societal marginalization. Yip et al. (2008) found that ethnic affirmation can
mitigate the stress associated with discrimination, demonstrating its
protective role. Additionally, belonging offers a network of social support
essential for emotional and practical assistance, which enhances social skills
and cultural competencies, as supported by Umaña‐Taylor et al. (2014).
Furthermore, positive reinforcement from one's ethnic group fosters a
coherent and positive self-identity. Jones & Galliher (2007) observed that
adolescents who receive affirmation from their ethnic community are more likely
to develop a strong ethnic identity, maintaining cultural continuity and pride
in their heritage. Affirmation also plays a significant role in academic and
professional development, with Cokley & Chapman (2008) finding that
students who feel affirmed in their ethnic identity are more motivated and
perform better academically. Moreover, individuals secure in their ethnic
identity are more likely to appreciate and respect diversity, promoting
cross-cultural understanding and tolerance, and contributing to a cohesive
multicultural society (Verkuyten, 2006).
Affirmation and belonging is scale refers to group membership and
attitudes toward the individual's group (Casey-Cannon et al., 2011). In the
majority of prior studies, a sense of belonging to an ethnic group and
attitudes toward the group have been identified as fundamental components of
ethnic identity. Affirmation anf belonging encompasses an individual's
emotional and cognitive acknowledgment and acceptance of their connection with
a specific ethnic or cultural group (Spencer et al., 2000). It involves experiencing
positive emotions and embracing one's association with their ethnic group,
often characterized by feelings of pride and positive regard towards their
cultural identity. This dimension explores the extent to which individuals
affirm and feel positively connected to their ethnic identity. Thus,
affirmation activities that specifically emphasize themes of belonging (i.e.,
affirmation and belonging) are likely to be more effective in mitigating
threats than standard affirmation activities, as they more directly address the
crucial element of close relationships (Layous & Nelson-Coffey, 2021).
These aspects can be influenced by an individual's attitude (Alpha,
2022). Common self-affirmation exercises involve individuals writing about
their significant personal values, which, without explicitly focusing on
belonging, help reduce the adverse impact of stressful events on various
outcomes, such as academic performance and susceptibility to potentially
harmful health information (Layous & Nelson-Coffey, 2021). Critcher &
Dunning (2015) research emphasizes that a key aspect of standard
self-affirmation exercises involves eliciting memories of close personal connections.
Therefore, affirmation practices specifically centered on themes of belonging
(referred to as affirmation and belonging) may offer more significant benefits
in overcoming hazards than traditional affirmation activities due to their
clearer emphasis on social connections. For instance, researchers explored
whether affirmation and belonging could enhance outcomes for vulnerable
individuals compared to standard affirmation instructions (Hales et al., 2016).
This is due to its clear emphasis on social connections, which are vital for
overcoming various hazards and enhancing overall well-being. These practices
can be particularly beneficial in educational settings where fostering a sense
of belonging can lead to improved academic outcomes and greater engagement.
2.2. Ethnic Identity Achievement
Ethnic identity refers to an individual's personal, self-categorizing
concept in which they identify with an ethnic group and its cultural identity,
beliefs, values, and traditions (Booth et al., 2022). Phinney (1996)
characterizes ethnic identity as a lasting, foundational element of one's
identity, encompassing a feeling of belongingness to an ethnic group along with
the sentiments and perspectives connected to that affiliation. Ethnic identity
stands as a crucial component of one's selfhood, encapsulating their
affiliation with an ethnic group and its cultural facets. It holds immense
importance in shaping an individual's feelings of belonging, self-esteem, and
overall welfare.
Neblett Jr et al. (2012) highlight “the significance of cultural assets,
such as ethnic identity, for the proper development of ethnically minority
youth. Ethnic identity is a multifaceted psychological construct that describes
one part of a person's total identity linked with ethnicity” (Rivas‐Drake et al., 2014). Identity can
be recognized as an understanding that comes on a social basis and is related
to one's position in social interaction (Casarez et al., 2022). Ethnic identity
is “a multifaceted construct that encompasses components of one's identity
derived from categorization with an ethnic group, the amount to which one
demonstrates, consolidates beliefs about, and participates with one's ethnic
group, and feelings linked with group membership” (Syed & Juang, 2014).
According to developmental research, early to middle adolescence
(roughly ages 10 to 16) is a significant time for the formation of ethnic
identity (French et al., 2006). Several studies (Blozis & Villarreal, 2014;
Brittian et al., 2015) support the notion that, as a cultural asset, “ethnic
identity plays both a protective (e.g., against discrimination and prejudice
associated with minority status) and a promotional (e.g., related to higher
self-esteem, better academic achievement, and mental health) role in youth's
development. However, the majority of this research has been conducted in
Western contexts. Very little study has been conducted on Indonesian sample
ethnic identification”.
Ethnic identity can be measured in various ways, and it is an important
aspect of an individual's sense of belonging and self-worth (Gummadam et al.,
2016). Identity achievement is the best result of the identity development
process; identity diffusion is characterized by a change in meaning or worth
towards oneself and a lack of clarity regarding one's place in society, and
stems from a failure to resolve identity difficulties (Phinney, 1992).
Additionally, ethnic identity achievement is component measures the extent to
which individuals feel successful in their ethnic identity and their perception
of their accomplishments in relation to their ethnic background (Thompson,
2016). Furthermore, Verkuyten & Brug (2002) stated that ethnic identity
achievement pertains to how much individuals have established a confident
perception of themselves as part of an ethnic or racial community and
comprehend and embrace their ethnicity or race. This means that people who have
achieved a strong ethnic identity have a clear understanding and positive
acceptance of their ethnic or racial background. The emotional component of ethnic identity is
the way an individual feels about their group membership, and it can have
significant implications for personal well-being.
2.3. Ethnic Belonging
Belonging to an ethnic group reflects a favorable connection to one's
own ethnic community, while achieving ethnic identity involves actively seeking
knowledge about one's ethnic background. Engaging in ethnic activities
demonstrates involvement in cultural practices, and attitudes towards
individuals from different ethnic groups are encapsulated in other-group
orientation (Kouli & Papaioannou, 2009; Phinney, 1992). Ting-Toomey et al.
(2000) described ethnic belonging as the amalgamation of ethnic customs and
principles with other forms of identification. Ethnic belonging refers to the feeling
of belonging to a particular ethnic group. It encompasses a sense of
attachment, pride, and positive association with one's ethnic or cultural
identity (Epstein & Heizler, 2015). Additionally, ethnic belonging
signifies "a favorable connection to one's own ethnic group, while ethnic
identity achievement involves actively exploring knowledge about ethnic
identity. Ethnic practices encompass involvement in ethnic-related activities,
and other-group orientation pertains to attitudes and sentiments towards
individuals from other ethnic groups"
(Kouli & Papaioannou, 2009).
Moreover, Phinney (1992) explained that the aspect of ethnic belonging
measures how closely affiliated and at ease individuals feel within their own
ethnic community. This sense of belonging stands as a crucial aspect of ethnic
identity and holds considerable influence over an individual's overall welfare
and social interactions (Epstein & Heizler, 2015). Ethnic belonging differs
from other facets of ethnic identity like ethnic identity achievement, which
involves actively seeking knowledge about one's ethnic identity, and ethnic
practices that encompass participation in ethnic-related activities
(Satterthwaite-Freiman & Umaña-Taylor, 2023). It is also linked to
other-group orientation, focusing on attitudes and emotions towards individuals
from different ethnic backgrounds (Lee, 2005).
With this scale of ethnic belonging, students tend to exhibit several
key behaviors and attitudes. Firstly, they are likely to show a higher degree
of participation in cultural and ethnic activities, as their sense of belonging
encourages active engagement in their community's traditions and practices.
This involvement not only fosters a deeper connection to their cultural
heritage but also enhances their social networks within their ethnic group.
Furthermore, students with a strong sense of ethnic belonging are more likely
to experience positive psychological outcomes, such as higher self-esteem and
lower levels of anxiety and depression. This is because a strong ethnic
identity provides a stable sense of self and a support system, which can buffer
against the stressors of daily life and discrimination. Moreover, a robust
sense of ethnic belonging can contribute to academic success. Students who feel
a strong connection to their ethnic community often benefit from the collective
support and encouragement of their peers and family members. This communal
support can motivate them to achieve academic excellence and pursue higher
education goals.
3. Method
3.1. Participants
Participants were selected from a group of secondary school students (N
= 276) from various Indonesian public and private schools. The students were
recruited from schools accredited by A in both urban and rural settings. Random
class selection was conducted for each grade level. The specific sample
included 166 girls (60.1%; Mage = 13.04; SD = 0.79) and 110 boys (39.9%; Mage =
12.85; SD = 0.87). Seventh- to ninth-grade students and 11-15 aged (Mage =
12.96; SD = 0.83) were selected at random from more than ten schools in cities
and districts with secondary student in Lampung province, Indonesia. The study
was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the XXX (Number: 6/2023) and
signed an informed consent form electronically. This study's sample comprised
all ethnocultural subgroups of participants (e.g., Javanese, Lampung, Batak,
Sundanese), as determined by their responses to the demographic questionnaire.
Additionally, private and public schools are part of the sample because in
Indonesia, the secondary school system comprises both public and private
schools. The inclusion of both private and public schools in the sample can
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the educational landscape. Public
schools tend to have larger student populations, often catering to a wider range
of socioeconomic backgrounds, and follow a standardized curriculum. Conversely,
private schools might have smaller class sizes, additional resources, and
varied teaching methods due to their independence. Including both types of
schools allows researchers to capture diverse perspectives, teaching
methodologies, and resources available to students in different school
environments. Including both types of schools in the sample allows researchers
to capture diverse perspectives and educational approaches, offering insights
into how different environments may influence students' ethnic identity and
academic experiences. Table 1 shows the demographics of the participants.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of the Participants in this Research
|
Demographic |
Frequency |
Percentage (%) |
|
|
Gender |
Female |
166 |
60.1 |
|
Male |
110 |
39.9 |
|
|
School Category |
Private |
187 |
67.8 |
|
Public |
89 |
32.2 |
|
|
Living Place |
City |
159 |
57.6 |
|
District |
117 |
42.4 |
|
|
Ethnic group |
Batak |
21 |
7.6 |
|
Java |
175 |
63.4 |
|
|
Lampung |
47 |
17.0 |
|
|
Sunda |
33 |
12.0 |
|
|
Religions |
Budhist |
8 |
2.9 |
|
|
Catholic |
9 |
3.3 |
|
|
Hindu |
6 |
2.2 |
|
|
Moslem |
231 |
83.7 |
|
|
Protestant |
22 |
8.0 |
3.2.
Instrument
The MEI2 was developed by Phinney (1992) and Kouli & Papaioannou
(2009) and some questions was developed by researchers. The development of
questions or items by researchers is because that we need to assess and
understand various aspects of ethnic identity and its impact on psychological
adjustment, academic achievement, and the holistic formation of ethnic identity
among individuals. The items consist of 21 items and comprise three subscales,
i.e., affirmation and belonging (5 items), ethnic identity achievement (7
items), and ethnic belonging (9 items). All items constructed were measured
independently. Each item was placed on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The measure was translated from English into
Indonesian language. The subscale was
selected based on their recognized significance in understanding the
complexities of ethnic identity in secondary education. Our literature review
emphasizes their importance in students' academic and socio-cultural
experiences. Focusing on these subscales allows for a more nuanced exploration
of ethnic identity intricacies in our research context, providing clarity in
the revised introduction to enhance transparency in our research design.
Affirmation and belonging: In the affirmation and belonging, the five
items scale are: (1) “I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group and its
accomplishments”, (2) “I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group”,
(3) I feel good about my culture or ethnic background (Phinney, 1992). Ethnic
Identity Achievement: This subscale comprises 5 items. The following are
examples of ethnic identity achievement items: (1) “I have spent time trying to
find out more about my own ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and
customs”, (2) “I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means
for me”, (3) “I think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic
group membership” (Phinney, 1992). Ethnic Belonging: This subscale consists of
nine items, each of which is detailed below. Three of the following things were
discovered to be accurate in the actual inventory: (1) “I like keeping the
traditions of the heritage of my ethnic group”, (2) “The values of my ethnic
groups determine my life”, (3) “In general, belonging to my ethnic group is an
important part of my self-image” (Kouli & Papaioannou, 2009). Additionally,
some questions which are developed by researchers: “I know about being
traditional fabric cloth, such as Tapis Lampung” and “I know the values of
Tapis Lampung, such as economy, culture, story”.
3.3.
Data Analysis
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 and
partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in SmartPLS v4
will be used to analyze the findings of this questionnaire's data collection.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was done to evaluate the measurement model's
fit (Jomnonkwao & Ratanavaraha, 2016). Following the CFA, “we utilized the
chi-square test, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square
residual (SRMR), and Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO)” index to evaluate the model's
fit (Kline, 2015). The degrees of freedom and p-value of the chi-square
statistic are represented numerically. We examined Cronbach's alpha and
composite reliability after finishing the CFA to establish the overall
reliability of the research. “Internal consistency reliabilities (Crbα;
Cronbach's alpha) and composite reliabilities (ω; McDonald's coefficient omega;
Raykov (1997)) were calculated to evaluate dependability. As indicated by Habók
& Magyar (2018), values larger than 0.70 imply positive results for
empirical study”.
The construction validity and discriminant validity tests were then used
to evaluate a measurement model's construct validity. It is important, when
examining the convergence of a theoretical model, to evaluate the level of
connection between the model's components. When the sum of all elements within
a single build is more than 0.70, the construct is considered confirmed.
According to the requirements, “the construct reliability (CR) for each
construct must above 0.70, and the average variance extracted (AVE) must exceed
0.50. Lower values are allowed only if the CR value is greater than 0.60
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In addition, we used HTMT as a discriminant
validity criterion, which we derived by comparing to a fixed value. Acceptable
as a criterion for discriminant validity eligibility is a cutoff value of 0.90”
(Kline, 2015).
4. Results
4.1. CFA
CFA is “used to validate latent factors in the
measurement model, indicating that all latent factors are operating
successfully and achieving GoF indices. To assess model fit, a CFA diagram was
produced in the measurement model using the pattern matrix builder plugin
created by Gaskin & Lim (2016). In this structure model, single-headed
arrows represent supposed one-way paths, and double-headed arrows represent the
correlation between two variables. A circle symbolizes a latent variable (for
example, a questionnaire factor), while a rectangle represents an observable
variable (i.e., questionnaire item). The little circles on the graph represent
the measurement errors for each of the measured metrics”. Consequently, KMO was
.885. Subsequently, in the loading factor was less than 0.40. It is usual
practice, according to Tabachnick et al. (2007), to utilize a lower constraint
on item factor loading to determine whether to keep or remove items from the
database. Following a main component analysis, values below 0.40 were excluded
from further research. A number of database entries with a value less than 0.40
were removed. This matched the 0.4 threshold value established by social
scientists (Straub et al., 2004; Suherman & Vidákovich, 2022). We
investigated the data using modification indices and covariance on items with
values greater than 5 inside the same factor in order to get model fit and
improve the CFA model's reliability. Modifications to the optimal measurement
model include covarying error components that belong to the same factor
(Hermida, 2015). The model fit was improved (χ^2= 227.671; χ^2/df = 149; p =
< .001; CFI = .978; TLI = .975; RMESA = .044, and SRMR = .075). Figure 1
will potentially lead in a fit CFA diagram, Table 2 is about loading factor of
items, which is a diagram that has been modified.
Table 2
Loading scores items
|
Item Code |
Questions |
Loading
Factor |
|
Affirmation and Belonging |
|
|
|
AB1 |
I am happy that I am a member of the
group I belong to. |
.681 |
|
AB2 |
I have a strong sense of belonging to my
own ethnic group. |
.734 |
|
AB3 |
I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group
and its accomplishments. |
.739 |
|
AB4 |
I feel a strong atachment towards my own
ethnic group. |
.753 |
|
AB5 |
I feel good about my culture or ethnic
background. |
.657 |
|
Ethnic Belonging |
|
|
|
EA1 |
I have spent time trying to find out
more about my own ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs. |
.693 |
|
EA2 |
I have a clear sense of my ethnic
background and what it means for me. |
.707 |
|
EA3 |
I think a lot about how my life will be
affected by my ethnic group membership. |
.650 |
|
EA4 |
I undesrtand pretty well what my ethnic
group membership means to me, in term of how to relate to my own group and
other groups. |
.686 |
|
EA5 |
In order to learn more about my ethnic
background, I have often talked to other people about my ethnic group. |
.619 |
|
Ethnic Identity Achievement |
|
|
|
EB1 |
I like keeping the traditions of the
heritage of my ethnic group. |
.642 |
|
EB2 |
The values of my ethnic groups determine
my life. |
.587 |
|
EB3 |
In general, belonging to my ethnic group
is an important part of my self-image. |
.710 |
|
EB4 |
The values of my ethnic groups are
important for my judgment about what I have to do. |
.677 |
|
EB5 |
The cultural traditions of my ethnic
group absolutely express me. |
.673 |
|
EB6 |
I know about being traditional fabric
cloth, such as Tapis Lampung. |
.542 |
|
EB7 |
I know about being Tapis Lampung motif,
such as Jung Sarat motif, Mountain Motif, Flaura and Fauna motif, Pucuk
Rebung motif. |
.668 |
|
EB8 |
I know about the process of making Tapis
Lampung |
.596 |
|
EB9 |
I know the values of Tapis Lampung, such
as economyc, cultur, story. |
.677 |
Figure 1. CFA graph for MEI2
4.2. Reliability
The calculation of each subscale's internal
consistency as well as its dependability was a required skill (Table 3). The
reliability has been calculated with values for the 3-subscales has ranged
between 0.64 and 0.85, which indicates that their reliabilities on each were
satisfactory. The consistency reliability was calculated using Crbα, and the
composite reliability was calculated using ω. Both methods were used to
calculate the reliability.
Table 3
Internal consistency reliability and composite reliability
|
Estimate |
McDonald's ω |
Cronbach's α |
|
Affirmation
and Belonging |
0.76 |
0.76 |
|
Ethnic
Identity Achievement |
0.64 |
0.69 |
|
Ethnic
Belonging |
0.83 |
0.85 |
The reliability of the affirmation and belonging
subscale was the greatest (Crb
4.3. Convergent Validity
The use of convergent validity allowed for the
examination of the relationship that existed between a number of variables that
were all contained inside a single construct of an instrument. In other words,
convergent validity was achieved when there was a significant degree of
correlation between the variables that were contained within a factor. In order
to ensure that this study maintains convergent validity, it is important to
compute the CR and AVE (Table 4).
Table 4
Convergent validity measurement
|
Factors |
CR |
AVE |
|
Affirmation
and Belonging |
0.76 |
0.39 |
|
Ethnic
Identity Achievement |
0.70 |
0.32 |
|
Ethnic
Belonging |
0.82 |
0.33 |
The convergent validity using the AVE results,
three-factors had values between .32 and .39. Contrastky, the CR values for
3-factors were more than .60. Since the convergent validity of the construct
was supported by CR values above .60 across all components, the lower limits of
the validity range are likewise accepted (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Malhotra
& Dash, 2011). Convergent validity of the study was also established.
4.4.
Discriminant validity
On the basis of the results of a discriminant
validity test, it was determined whether latent factors differ empirically (Hair Jr et
al., 2021).
“Fornell-Larcker criterion was utilized to establish discriminant validity”
(Henseler et al., 2015). Table 5 provides an overview of the outcomes. The
range of results was from 0.591 to 0.696. This means that all values below 0.90
have been certified as having discriminant validity (Hair et al.,
2010; Henseler et al., 2015). We also
perform of the correlation between variables in term of path coefficients.
Table 5
Fornell-Larcker
criterion for three-factors
|
AB |
EB |
EA |
|
|
AB |
.714 |
||
|
EB |
.591 |
.644 |
|
|
EA |
.616 |
.696 |
.672 |
Note: AB,
Affirmation and Belonging; EA, Ethnic Identity Achievement; EB, Ethnic
Belonging. “All correlations are significant at p < .01”.
Table 6
Post-hoc
minimum sample size
|
Correlation |
Path
coefficients |
p |
|
Affirmation and Belonging -> Ethnic Belonging |
.261 |
< .001 |
|
Affirmation and Belonging -> Ethnic Identity Achievement |
.616 |
< .001 |
|
Ethnic Identity Achievement -> Ethnic Belonging |
.536 |
< .001 |
|
Affirmation and Belonging -> Ethnic Identity Achievement ->
Ethnic Belonging |
.330 |
< .001 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Figure 2. Students’
performance on ethnic identity variables. (a) Students’ performance on Ethnic
Identity Achievement variable, (b) Students’ performance on Ethnic Belonging
variable, (c) Students’ performance on Affirmation and Belonging variable.
In Table 6, a significant positive relationship
was observed between affirmation and belonging and ethnic belonging (β = .261,
p < .001). Furthermore, there were positive correlations noted between
affirmation and belonging and ethnic identity achievement, as well as between
ethnic identity achievement and ethnic belonging, with approximately (β = .611,
p < .001) and (β = .536, p < .001), respectively. Moreover, the total
direct effect for the three variables amounted to (β = .330, p < .001).
5. Discussion
This is
a scientific breakthrough from our investigation into the psychometric
characteristics of the MEI2 administered to a sample of ethnically diverse
junior high school students in Indonesia, as far as we are concerned. In accordance
with earlier research (e.g., Chakawa et al., 2015; Habibi et al., 2021; Miyoshi
et al., 2017). In the Indonesian context, we have established three distinct
factors: CFA, reliability based on Cronbach's α and McDonald's ω, validity
based on CR and AVE, and discriminant validity. Moreover, the results of this
investigation validated MEI2 for the three commitment subscales. In general, it
was determined that the scale was reliable and valid for all genders and
secondary pupils. “This study fulfills an essential function, as ethnic
identity plays a crucial part in proper development and excellent youth
activities” (Di Miceli, 2023; Rivas‐Drake et al., 2014). By confirming the reliability and validity of MEI2
in the Indonesian context, we provide a robust tool for educators and
researchers to better understand and support the ethnic identity development of
students. This, in turn, can inform interventions and educational strategies
that promote inclusivity and equity in diverse educational settings (Killen
& Rutland, 2022). Furthermore, our findings underscore the importance of
culturally sensitive psychometric tools in accurately capturing the nuances of
ethnic identity across different cultural contexts, thereby contributing to the
global discourse on youth development and educational psychology (Larson,
2000).
In this
study, the MEI2 questionnaire was accepted and then verified in the context of
an Indonesian secondary school student sample utilizing the CFA. The objective
is to bridge the gap between the conceptual ideas and the development process.
Following the CFA accomplished in this study, it was found that a three-factor
model with two Ethnic Identity Achievement components deleted should be
employed (i.e., “I am not very clear about the role of my ethnicity in my life”
and “I really have not spent much time trying to learn more about the culture
and history of my ethnic group”). Because the loading factors are less than
0.5, the eliminations have occurred. This low correlation can introduce noise
and reduce the precision of the measurement, making the results less reliable.
By removing these items, the overall internal consistency and construct
validity of the questionnaire are enhanced. This practice is supported by
previous research, such as Roberts et al. (1999) validation studies on the
MEIM, where items with low loadings were recommended for removal to better
capture the construct of ethnic identity. Similarly, general principles of
psychometric evaluation, as discussed by scholars like Olatunji et al. (2007),
emphasize that eliminating poorly performing items leads to a more accurate and
interpretable measure. This ensures that the MEI2 questionnaire effectively
assesses ethnic identity among Indonesian secondary school students, providing
more reliable and valid results for research and practical applications.
Furthermore, the MEI2's construct validity was confirmed by the moderate. But
statistically substantial relationships exist between its total and subscale
scores and subjective well-being measures (e.g., “positive affect, negative
affect, and life satisfaction”). All associations were in the expected
direction, thereby confirming the validity of previous research (D’hondt et
al., 2016; Lal & Majumdar, 2023; Maehler et al., 2019; Phinney, 1992;
Roslidah et al., 2017).
Our
research established the reliability of an MEI2-representative scale in
Indonesian, taking finance into account. However, it is essential to conduct a
new examination into the instrument's measurement properties, as the scale may
be applied to a wide range of groups. The sample in question might exhibit
diverse structural traits and strategy categorizations, which will depend on
the outcomes of these further investigations. Structural traits are determined
to varying degrees across different samples, influenced by cultural,
socio-economic, and contextual factors.
In
psychological research, ensuring the cross-cultural validity of an instrument
like the MEI2 is critical. Ethnic identity is a complex construct that can
manifest differently in various cultural contexts. For instance, Phinney (1992)
model of ethnic identity formation emphasizes the role of socio-cultural
environments in shaping ethnic identity. This model supports the need for
ongoing validation to ensure the instrument's accuracy in different settings.
Measurement invariance, as highlighted by Meredith (1993), is crucial for
confirming that the instrument functions equivalently across different groups.
Without this, comparisons across groups may be invalid, leading to erroneous
conclusions. Cheung & Rensvold (2000) further underscore the importance of
assessing measurement invariance to ensure reliable cross-cultural research
outcomes. Previous studies, such as Phinney & Ong (2007) review of ethnic
identity, highlight the dynamic nature of ethnic identity and the necessity for
adaptable instruments. They stress that instruments must be sensitive to
cultural differences to capture the true essence of ethnic identity. This
necessitates continuous validation efforts to refine and adapt the MEI2,
ensuring it remains relevant and accurate.
6. Conclusions
In
conclusion, our study demonstrates that the MEI2 is a viable instrument for
assessing the correlates of ethnic identification among Indonesian secondary students
from varied ethnocultural backgrounds. At this stage, only comparisons of MEI2
commitment ratings are valid, although exploration values should be compared
between groups with consideration. Therefore, additional research on this
popular measure is required. This research examined the MEI2's reliability,
convergent validity, discriminant validity, and factor structure. Overall, we
discovered that the MEI2 is a reliable instrument with high psychometric
qualities, and thus it can be utilized more frequently in the Indonesian
context. In addition, this study utilizes a restricted definition of ethnicity
based on language, which contributes to multicultural research and expands the
body of literature on ethnic identity. We believe that this study will lead the
way for future research evaluating the MEI2 and other similar measures of
ethnic identity among different and understudied ethnic groups.
7. Limitation and Future Research
The
majority of participants were recruited using Internet social networking sites
and other social media, restricting the scope of the study to persons with the
means, interest, and education to use the Internet. Due to the absence of an
accomplishment category, we were unable to identify the amount to which
participants interacted with the learning achievement. In spite of this,
because ethnic identity evolves gradually during adolescence and young
adulthood via the processes of exploration and commitment, it is not possible
to predict ethnic identity (Habibi et al., 2021). Due to the limited sample
size of our study, we encourage researchers to utilize the MEI2 item with
caution when evaluating the biggest populations in Indonesia. This is
especially important if the research subjects are connected to gender in any
manner, as our study did not show that gender may play a substantial role as a
mediator variable. Importantly, Phinney & Ong (2007) confirm that the
6-item MEIM-R version of this measure covers the basic characteristics of
ethnic identity. In order to generate an administration-friendly version,
future study might explore the psychometric properties of the 6-item MEIM-R in
the Indonesian environment.
Acknowledgment
We
would like to thank the Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarship of the HungarianGovernment
for the funding support for this study. Also, we appreciate the Doctoral School
of Education, University of Szeged for the suggestions and discussions for an
idea in the research view.
Declaration of Competing Interest
No
conflict of interest exists.
CRedIT
Suherman Suherman: Conceptualisation, Data
collection and management (data curation), Formal analysis, Validation,
Research, Methodology, Writing the original draft. Tibor Vidákovich:
Acquisition of funding, Project management, Resources, Software, Supervision,
Visualisation, Writing (revision and editing).
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