• 179 •
Anduli
Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales
ISSN: 1696-0270 • e-ISSN: 2340-4973
CODE-SWITCHING AND THE FORCED CHOICE DILEMMA
AS OBSTACLES IN IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF GIFTED
ADOLESCENTS
CAMBIO DE CÓDIGO Y DILEMA DE LA ELECCIÓN
FORZADA COMO OBSTACULOS EN EL DESARROLLO DE
LA IDENTIDAD DE ADOLESCENTES SUPERDOTADOS
Marlies Visser
Veluwse onderwijsgroep, The Netherlands
m.bulens@veluwseonderwijsgroep.nl
https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7132-4604
Lianne Hoogeveen
Radboud Universiteit, The Netherlands
Lianne.hoogeveen@ru.nl
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3362-240X
Abstract
We start from research showing that
adolescents with high abilities often code-
switch or face a dilemma of forced choice
as they seek security and connection in
their social environment. These strategies
lead them to hide their high cognitive
abilities in an attempt to integrate into the
sociocultural environment, which results
in a loss, concealment or denial of their
identity as gifted adolescents. The aim
of this research is to characterize the
favourable and unfavourable conditions
for the development of the identity of
highly gifted adolescents by means of a
systematic review of selected publications
on the subject. The conclusions show
that cases of identity concealment by
highly gifted adolescents tend to occur in
the absence of recognition and facilitation
of the development of their qualities in
their family, school or peer environment.
Also, we conclude that these cases
are difcult to record or recover, so it is
recommended to act by prevention and
early support.
Keywords: Code-switching; forced
choice dilemma; giftedness; high abilities;
identity development.
Resumen
Partimos de investigaciones que mues-
tran que los adolescentes con altas capa-
cidades a menudo cambian de código o se
enfrentan a un dilema de elección forzada
cuando buscan seguridad y conexión en
su entorno social. Estas estrategias les
llevan a ocultar sus altas capacidades
cognitivas en un intento de integrarse en
el entorno sociocultural, lo que se traduce
en una pérdida, ocultación o negación de
su identidad como adolescentes superdo-
tados. El objetivo de esta investigación
es caracterizar las condiciones favorables
y desfavorables para el desarrollo de la
identidad de los adolescentes superdo-
tados mediante una revisión sistemática
de publicaciones seleccionadas sobre el
tema. Las conclusiones muestran que los
casos de ocultación de la identidad por
parte de adolescentes altamente dotados
tienden a producirse en ausencia de reco-
nocimiento y facilitación del desarrollo de
sus cualidades en su entorno familiar, es-
colar o de iguales. Asimismo, se concluye
que estos casos son difíciles de registrar
o recuperar, por lo que se recomienda
actuar mediante la prevención y el apoyo
precoz.
Palabras claves: Dilema de elección
forzada, cambio de código, sobredota-
ción, altas capacidades, desarrollo de
identidad.
Cómo citar este artículo/ citation: Visser, Marlies; Hoogeveen, Lianne (2025). Code-switching and the forced choice
dilemma as obstacles in identity development of gifted adolescents. ANDULI 27 (2025) pp.179-198.
https://doi.org/10.12795/anduli.2025.i27.08
Recibido: 30.09.2024 Revisado: 13.11.2024 Aceptado: 13.12.2024
Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 27 - 2025
• 180 •
1. INTRODUCTION
Various sources suggest that the social needs of adolescents with high abilities are
like those of their peers (Bakx et al., 2021; Cross et al., 2019; Pfeiffer, 2021). Cross
et al. (2019) described that these adolescents want to be accepted by their peers,
just like adolescents with average abilities. According to Zanolie et al. (2022), social
experiences can inuence the well-being of all adolescents. Close friends during
adolescence are a protective factor for well-being, while the effects of rejection are the
opposite. Adolescents with high abilities may feel different from their average peers
(Coleman et al., 2015; Cross et al., 2019; Striley, 2014). They appear to feel more
different or stigmatized when they have limited knowledge about their high abilities.
(Wong & Jung, 2024). Their peers, parents, and teachers can inuence this feeling
of being different and how they view themselves (Bakx et al., 2021; Coleman et al.,
2015; Steenberghs et al., 2023; Striley, 2014). Some adolescents with high abilities
may adapt to the norms of their average-ability peers to feel a sense of belonging.
This process of adapting to average among high-ability youngsters could be viewed
as code-switching (Cross, 2023) or as facing a forced-choice dilemma (Gross, 1989)
Both code-switching strategies and the forced-choice dilemma seem to allow
individuals to connect with their environment but also let them hide their intellectual
capacities, partially or completely. Consequently, their environment might not
sufciently recognize their needs. If they employ these strategies over a long period,
it could potentially impact the development of their identity as well as their talents.
Van Horssen-Solie (2021) suggested that trying to ‘t in’ while developing one’s own
identity can lead to challenges in that development. Cross (2012) indicated that the
environment assists young people in creating and shaping their personal narratives.
Before describing the phenomena of code-switching and the forced choice dilemma,
below is briey explained what is meant by adolescents with high intellectual abilities,
as the concept of high ability is interpreted in various ways.
High ability
According to Bakx et al. (2021), Renzulli and Reis (2017), and Subotnik et al. (2011),
there are many denitions for adolescents with high abilities. Renzulli and Reis,
as well as Subotnik et al. emphasized that we should look beyond IQ scores, as
motivation and creativity also play roles in intellectual capabilities. According to them,
adolescents with high abilities are multidimensional, heterogeneous, and diverse.
Subotnik et al. described high ability as a process from potential to performance.
According to Gagné (2017), achieving high levels of success is possible if psychosocial
and educational circumstances are optimal for those with high abilities. In the above
study, adolescents with the potential to become high achievers will be referred to as
gifted adolescents.
Development of identity in adolescence
Several studies (Blakemore, 2015; Zanolie et al., 2022; Crone et al., 2022) indicate
that the adolescent phase spans from ages 10 to 24. Adolescence is a period
characterised by psychological changes and marks the transition from childhood to
adulthood (Crone, 2012). During this time, they learn to control their cognitive skills
and work with long-term goals needed in adulthood. Self-consciousness, identity
development, and peer relationships become more important during adolescence
(Blakemore, 2015; Crone et al., 2022; De Lise et al., 2023; Zanolie et al., 2022;
Zhang & Qin, 2023). Social and affective processes play a crucial role in the transition
Artículos • Marlies Visser, Lianne Hoogeveen
• 181 •
to adulthood. These changes, combined with cognitive exibility, help adolescents
potentially discover and develop their own identity (Crone, 2012). The extent to which
adolescents establish a sense of identity is linked to their psychosocial functioning and
overall well-being (De Lise et al., 2023). Educators may signicantly inuence identity
formation by facilitating their students’ processes of introspection and extrospection;
consequently, they acquire a deeper understanding of both them and their surrounding
environment (Reimer, 2024). According to Peterson et al. (2012), gifted adolescents
seem to benet from positive experiences, which play a role in developing new
perspectives, condence, social connections, and their own possibilities. Investing
in their academic capabilities helps them grow personally and leads to a meaningful
life. What should be considered, however, is that Park et al. (2023) suggests that
when high-achieving adolescents place a high value on academic achievement, it
may become an integral aspect of their identity. Nonetheless, this attachment may
also evoke both positive and negative emotions.
The inuence of the environment in adolescence
Acceptance by peers and social learning is essential for the well-being of adolescents
(Zanolie et al., 2022). Moreover, peer relations are consistently linked to academic
achievement. According to Zanolie et al., evidence from neuroimaging studies
shows that adolescents have heightened neural responses in brain regions related
to reward and motivation when they are in a peer context. Social learning involves
adolescents learning to adapt to their social environment through peer interactions.
Furthermore, adolescents are more sensitive to acceptance and rejection by their
peers than children before adolescence because they focus less on their parents and
more on their peers (Blakemore, 2015; Zanolie et al., 2022). According to Hoogeveen
et al. (2009), feeling different could inuence gifted students’ academic and social
achievements.
Nowadays, more emphasis is placed on the holistic view of gifted students. Academic
achievement remains signicant, but mental well-being has also become essential
(Peterson & Jen, 2018; Casino-García et al., 2021; Mammadov & Ward, 2023). It is
important to consider that gifted adolescents do not experience more mental health
issues than their average peers, but their mental health challenges may be different
(Aykutlu et al.,2024; Peterson & Jen, 2018). Peterson and Jen seem to capitalize on
this with their Peterson Proactive Developmental Attention model (PPDA-Model). The
goal of the PPDA-Model is to foster both academic achievement and mental well-
being, as Peterson and Jen assert that both require equal attention.
Ultimately, negative stigmatization from the environment and peer rejection could
prevent some gifted adolescents from demonstrating their capabilities at all (Baudson,
2016; Cross et al., 2019; Striley, 2014). This aligns with the observation that adolescents
are particularly sensitive to peer acceptance and rejection. According to Baudson,
failing to showcase their abilities could hinder gifted adolescents’ development as
they may not fully realize their potential. The above study examined gifted adolescents
aged 10 to 18, as this is the age when they are on the verge of attending secondary
school in the Netherlands. It is the moment when gifted students reach adolescence,
and sensitivity to peer acceptance and rejection becomes more pronounced. Some
may adapt to the group with average intellectual abilities, potentially engaging in
code-switching (Cross, 2023) or facing a forced-choice dilemma (Gross, 1989). See
below the meaning of the concepts of code-switching and forced choice dilemma in
relation to high ability adolescents.
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Code-switching
The concept of code-switching was originally used to describe people switching
between languages in one conversation. Research shifted in the late 20th century;
code-switching is not just about bilingualism. It can symbolize a range of social identities
beyond linguistic facts. Identities include ethnic, regional, urban or rural, minority or
majority, and other social categories (Auer, 2005; Cashman, 2005). Therefore, code-
switching research is broad and complex (Auer, 2005; Cashman, 2015; Wei, 2005).
According to Gafangra (2005) code-switching is a complex component of social
identity, which could be used to reinforce identity (Tseng & Cashman, 2015). Those
who interact with each other let each other know they belong to the same group or
that they understand the codes of the group (Tseng & Cashman, 2015; Jørgensen,
2005). Thus, the sociological aspect of code-switching may include what people
want to express with it (Tseng & Cashman, 2015). According to Jørgensen (2005),
adolescents reinforce both their social relations with peers by code-switching and
reinforce their own identity.
According to El Hadioui et al. (2021), this sociological aspect of code-switching is
more observed in some groups. The study of El Hadioui et al. (2021). described
code-switching among students in large urban areas in the Netherlands. According to
this study, some students have a more challenging time in school because they must
code-switch frequently. Also, code-switching in the study of El Hadioui et al. is not
about the exact meaning of words but about context and social identity. “Language”
at school differs from “language” at home or on the streets. According to El Hadioui et
al., some students frequently navigate between languages, which can inuence their
schooling because these students from large urban areas must adapt frequently to
different environments.
According to Cross (2023), this phenomenon of code-switching is also visible when
gifted students are among their average peers. Cross mentioned that gifted students
who are among peers with average abilities will adapt their language to a more
appropriate language for the mixed group. Because the population of gifted people
is smaller than those with average intellectual abilities, this code-switching could
happen so frequently, that you may wonder whether this does not compromise one’s
own identity, according to Cross.
As every adolescent, gifted adolescents are sensitive to peer acceptance and
rejection (Blakemore, 2015; Zanolie et al., 2022) and want to be included in the
group. However, stigmatisation can lead to feelings of rejection, which can inuence
their academic development (Cross et al., 2019; Peterson & Jen, 2018; Striley, 2014;
Zanolie et al., 2022). Code-switching could be a way for gifted adolescents to feel
accepted within a group with average abilities. However, as Cross (2023) described,
their uniqueness may disappear if they code-switch frequently.
According to Peterson and Jen, gifted adolescents seem to experience more stress
and a lack of self-condence when their peers reject them. Code-switching seems
an effective way for gifted adolescents to avoid peer rejection because they seem to
become more readily part of the group with average abilities when they code-switch.
However, losing one’s identity by code-switching could lead to other mental health
issues. In their Peterson Proactive Developmental Attention model (PPDA), Peterson
and Jen (2018) mention how important it is to nurture gifted adolescents’ cognitive
and mental aspects for developing their potential.
Artículos • Marlies Visser, Lianne Hoogeveen
• 183 •
The study by El Hadioui et al. (2021) shows us that those who have to code-switch a
lot tend to have a more challenging time in school. Although the study of El Hadioui
et al. (2021) is about minority groups in large urban areas in the Netherlands and
not about gifted students, you can point out some parallels. El Hadioui et al. writes
about a minority group who code-switch because they experience cultural differences
between home, school and society.
Baudson and Ziemes (2016) use the Cass Identity Model (CIM) when looking into
gifted students’ identity development. The CIM is a model initially used for various
minority groups to research identity development. Gifted students can be a minority
group that experiences cultural differences between home, school and society,
making them code-switch more than average and possibly suffer the disadvantages of
doing so. Recognizing and acknowledging code-switching in gifted adolescents may
contribute to developing their full potential because then one looks at the cognitive
part of the gifted adolescent and at their mental well-being.
Another phenomenon of adaptation among gifted adolescents to be included in the
group with average abilities is introduced by Gross (1989), who called it the forced
choice dilemma. The forced choice dilemma is like code-switching, an adaptation
strategy of gifted adolescents aiming to be included in the group with average
abilities. The forced choice dilemma, however, is more than an adaptation strategy.
In the forced choice dilemma, the gifted student chooses not to show their intellectual
capabilities at all.
Forced choice dilemma
In this study, the forced choice dilemma refers to gifted adolescents’ fear of not being
included in groups with average abilities, leading them to adapt to these groups
intellectually (Gross, 1989). Not all gifted adolescents experience such fear or face a
forced choice dilemma. According to van Horssen-Sollie (2021), gifted students who
face the forced choice dilemma feel the friction between the expectations of others,
achievement, and nding their own identity. Gifted adolescents may experience
stress when they become aware of others’ expectations (Cross et al., 2019; Peterson
& Jen, 2018; Striley, 2014). Furthermore, they can worry about how their average-
ability peers perceive them and the expectations created in their environment due
to their outstanding abilities (Cross et al., 2019; Striley, 2014). According to Cross et
al., some gifted adolescents do not want to brag or hurt the feelings of classmates
who struggle with tasks at school. Negative stigmatisation and peer rejection may
lead some high-ability adolescents to hide their capabilities entirely (Baudson, 2016;
Cross et al., 2019; Striley, 2014).
The aim of this research is to characterize the favourable and unfavourable conditions
for the development of the identity of highly gifted adolescents in view of avoiding they
fall in code switching or forced choice dilemma.
2. METHOD AND MATERIALS
The search focus is on the following:
a) what promotes or hinders the development of the identity of gifted adolescents.
b) which factors contribute to code-switching by gifted adolescents.
Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 27 - 2025
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c) which factors contribute to ending up in the forced choice dilemma by gifted
adolescents.
Recognizing these adaptation strategies and understanding their origins and
inuences may help professionals gain a better overview of the entire process of
adjusting gifted students’ behavior. This seems more important today, as more focus
is placed on the holistic view of gifted adolescents, where professionals consider both
academic achievement and mental well-being.
The methodology applied is a systematic bibliographic review. Literature is searched
across six different databases using predened keywords, their corresponding
synonyms, and established inclusion criteria. This approach includes various study
designs, providing the broadest overview of existing research. All studies or articles
considered are no older than 15 years.
The databases examined are chosen from the elds of education and psychology
because the questions in this integrative review are based on both disciplines.
Figure 1 illustrates the literature search conducted in six databases: Eric, PsychInfo,
PubMed, RuQuest, Scopus, and Web of Science. The keywords and synonyms used
for the data search are detailed in Table 1.
Figure 1. Flowchart
Number of articles based on exclusion: 69
Irrelevant articles based on title and summary: 385
Number of duplicate items:10
Number of used articles: 28
Number of articles: 97
Number of articles: 482
Articles:
ERIC:163
PsychInfo:190
PubMed:26
RuQuest:19
Scopus:41
Web of Science:53
Total: 492
Source: own elaboration
The keywords are established by listing subjects relevant to the research question
and the inclusion criteria; these criteria are detailed in Table 2. The selection
procedure consists of three steps: 1) exclusion of duplicates, 2) screening of titles
and summaries, and 3) screening of the entire article. The included population
comprised gifted adolescents aged 10 to 18, as these adolescents attend secondary
education in the Netherlands and are in the adolescent phase. Three phenomena
relevant to the inclusion criteria based on the research question are code-switching,
the forced choice dilemma, and the identity development of gifted adolescents. The
study designs included qualitative, quantitative, and/or mixed methods, systematic
literature reviews, narrative reviews, and articles in reputable journals. All studies
Artículos • Marlies Visser, Lianne Hoogeveen
• 185 •
or articles considered are not older than 15 years. The quality of the studies used is
established by examining the validity of each study.
Table 1. Keywords and synonyms
Keywords Synonyms used in the search
Gifted identity
development
Gifted* and identity.
High abilit* and identity.
Gifted* and adolescent development.
High abilit* and adolescent development.
Talent* and identity development.
Talent and Adolescent development.
Forced choice
dilemma
Gifted* and forced choice dilemma.
High abilit* and forced choice.
High abilit* and forced choice dilemma.
Talent* and forced choice.
Talent* and forced choice dilemma.
Code-switching
Gifted* and code-switch.
Gifted* and code-switching.
High abilit* and code-switch.
High abilit* and code-switching.
Talent* and code-switch.
Talent* and code-switching.
Source: own elaboraon
Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Population
• Gifted adolescents: age between
10-18
• Adolescents in gifted programs
• Gifted students in secondary
education
• Gifted students in
primary- education
• Non-gifted
• Older than 18
• Twice exceptional
Phenomenon
• Code-switching.
• Forced choice dilemma.
• Identity development gifted
adolescent (age 10-18)
• Code switching in non-gifted
adolescents.
• Identity development non gifted
adolescent.
• Forced choice dilemma in non-gifted
adolescents?
Quality study • Validity of the study.
• Generalizable of the study.
Outcome • Data analyses support outcomes.
Studies
Studies included:
• Qualitative, quantitative, and/or
mixed design study methods
• Systematic literature review and
narrative review
• Articles in renowned magazines
• Year 2009-present
• Before 2009
Source: own elaboration
A total of 28 studies are included based on the inclusion criteria. The studies included in
this integrative review are detailed in Table 3. Most of the included studies are referred
to the gifted identity development search. Only one article focused on code-switching
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among gifted students, and two studies published after 2009 addressed the forced-
choice dilemma. Based on our knowledge of the existing articles, we examined
factors that encourage code-switching and the forced-choice dilemma to identify
potential links between promoting and hindering factors of identity development in
gifted adolescents.
Table 3: Overview of studies used
Topic Target
Group
Coun-
try
Study group/
Comparison
group
Inclusion criteria:
Identied as
gifted by
Inclusion criteria:
Study conducted
Albright &
Montgomery,
2023
Gifted/
Emotional
develop-
ment
Stu-
dents
M
11-15
UK 28 gifted
Identied
as gifted via
school system.
Q-Methodology
Barber &
Wasson,
2015
HA/
compari-
son Peer
relation
Adoles-
cents USA Complemen-
tary sources:
Educational
achievement
School
Questionnaire
Home
Questionnaire
Baudson&
Ziemes,
2016
Gifted/
Identity-
Develop-
ment.
Adoles-
cents UK
ADD
database
compared
with AHAA
database.
742 gifted
Standardized
test - >130
Online
Questionnaire
Bergold et
al., 2015
Gifted/life
satisfaction
Stu-
dents
M
16-17
CH
460 average
SIS
75 gifted
Intelligence-
Structure-Test
2000
General Life
Satisfaction Scale
(Dalbert , 2003)
Blackett &
Webb, 2011
Gifted/
SENG
model
- AU - - Article
Chen et al.,
2018
Gifted/
Subjective
well-being
Stu-
dents
M
15-17
USA 351 gifted
Top 10% stu-
dents based
on high school
entrance
examination.
Created Question-
naire with multiple
scales that covers
the constructs
relevant for the
broaden-and-build
theory.
Coleman &
Cross, 2014
Gifted/
Social
experience
Stu-
dents
M
15-17
USA 99 gifted.
-Wechsler In-
telligence Test
for Children
Revised.
-Otis-Lennon
Mental Abilities
Test.
Qualitative
interview.
Coleman et
al., 2015
Gifted/Life
experience - USA - -
Phenomeno-
logical Qualitative
research.
Cross &
Frazier,
2010
Gifted/Psy-
chosocial
develop-
ment
- USA - - Article
Artículos • Marlies Visser, Lianne Hoogeveen
• 187 •
Topic Target
Group
Coun-
try
Study group/
Comparison
group
Inclusion criteria:
Identied as
gifted by
Inclusion criteria:
Study conducted
Cross et al.,
2019
Gifted/
Social
experience
Stu-
dents
M 8-18
USA
90 gifted
Across ve
countries:
USA, IR, UK,
FR, KOR (18
participants
per country)
Identied
as gifted via
school system.
Qualitative
interview
Cross, 2023 Gifted/CS - USA - - Article
Cross, 2024
Gifted/Psy-
chological
well-being
- USA - - Article
Guthrie,
2020
Gifted/Girl-
sin adoles-
cence
- USA - - Article
Ishak, 2010
Gifted/Psy-
chological
problems
Stu-
dents
M
13-15
MY 180 Gifted
PERMATApin-
tar UKM test 1
PERMATApin-
tar UKM test 2
Questionnaire
Jung et
al.,2012 Gifted/FCD
Stu-
dents
M
11-17
USA 450 Gifted
Standardized
achievement
test
Questionnaire
Jung et al,
2011 Gifted/FCD
Stu-
dents
M
11-18
UK 231 Gifted
Selected
from previous
studies
Self report
Questionnaire
Kane, 2020 GiftedWell-
being - USA - - Article
Lavri-
jsen & Ver-
schueren,
2023
Gifted/
mental
health
Stu-
dents
M
12-13
BE
Total 3409
students
Average
ability group
(IQ90-110)
compared
with High
ability group
(>120)
Standard-
ized test:
CoVaT-CHC
Questionnaire
Lee et al.,
2012
Gifted/
Interper-
sonal com-
petence
Stu-
dents
M
11-18
USA 1526 Gifted
Trough: NU-
MAT and
CTD
Created Question-
naire with multiple
scales that covers
social compe-
tence with foci
on interpersonal
competence and
peer relation
Lee et al.,
2012
Gifted/
social com-
petence
Stu-
dents
M
12-18
KOR 740 Gifted
Trough: NU-
MAT, Class-
room teachers
(IQ >130)
Online and paper
survey
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Topic Target
Group
Coun-
try
Study group/
Comparison
group
Inclusion criteria:
Identied as
gifted by
Inclusion criteria:
Study conducted
Maedows &
Robinson,
2023
Gifted/ex-
perience of
connection
Stu-
dents
M
12-13
USA 763 Gifted
Standardized
achievement
test
Quantitative
survey
Mueller,
2009
Gifted/
Depression
Stu-
dents
M
12-18
USA
Trough ADD
Health
762 gifted
compared
with 762 Non
Gifted
-Analysis from
database
Peterson et
al., 2012
Gifted/
positive life
experience
- USA - - Longitudinal study
Peterson et
al., 2009
Gifted/neg-
ative life
experience
- USA - - Longitudinal study
Peterson &
Jen, 2018
Gifted/
PPDA
model
- USA - - Article
Wiley, 2020
Gifted/
Social
emotional
world
- USA - - Article
Winsor &
Mueller,
2020
Gifted/De-
pression en
suicide
- USA - - Article
Wood et al.
(2024)
Gifted/de-
velopment
and devel-
opmental
potential
CH 88 (parents
of) gifted
Through:
Wechsler Intel-
ligence Scale
for Children
(IQ >140)
Trough: quali-
fying report for
the verication
of a full-scale
intelligence
quotient or
general abil-
ity index of Q
>140)
Mixed method
ADD: National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health; AHAA: The Adolescent Health and Acade-
mic Achievement Study; CoVaT-CHC = cognitive ability test; CS = code-switching; CTD= Center
for Talent Development; FCD = forced choice dilemma; HA = high achieving; M = mean; NUMAT=
Northwest University Midwest Academic Talent Search;WISC
Source: own elaboration
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• 189 •
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results refer to the favourable and unfavourable conditions for the development
of the identity of highly gifted adolescents and they are obtained through a systematic
review of selected publications on the subject. Below, the sections discussing the
factors that promote, or hinder identity development are organised to address the
inuence of family, school, and intrapersonal inuences.
3.1. Factors that promote the development of the identity of gifted adolescents.
Six studies stated that safe family relations promote identity development. Parents
of gifted adolescents should recognize and acknowledge their children’s giftedness
(Chen et al., 2018; Cross, 2024; Cross et al., 2019; Kane, 2020; Lee et al., 2012;
Mueller, 2009). Chen et al. (2018) mentioned in their study that trust and engagement
of both parents in the lives of their gifted child are essential for a positive relationship.
Studies by Kane (2020), Lavrijsen and Verschueren (2023), Mueller (2009), and
Peterson and Jen (2018) noted that when gifted adolescents feel connected with their
peers and teachers at school, it promotes stable identity development.
Cross (2024) and Coleman et al. (2015) emphasized that for gifted adolescents, it is
crucial for schools to understand their specic needs. This aligns with ndings from
Lee et al. (2012), Meadows and Robinson (2023), and Mueller (2009), which state
that feeling challenged in school or extracurricular settings is vital for their identity
development. Coleman et al. (2015) and Wood et al. (2024) also indicated that
gifted adolescents thrive in environments with like-minded peers who share similar
interests, fostering their identity growth. Gifted adolescents thrive in environments
with peers who share similar interests, which fosters their identity growth. According
to Meadows and Robinson (2023), this dynamic can greatly inuence their overall
motivation.
Feeling understood by peers and having their interests recognized can enhance
gifted adolescents’ self-esteem, as noted in studies by Cross, 2024, Cross and
Frazier (2010), Lee et al. (2012), and Meadows and Robinson (2023). Studies by
Kane (2020), Lavrijsen and Verschueren (2023), Mueller (2009), and Peterson and
Jen (2018) noted that when gifted adolescents feel connected with their peers and
teachers at school, it promotes stable identity development. Coleman et al. (2015)
emphasized that for gifted adolescents, it is crucial for schools to understand their
specic needs. This aligns with ndings from Lee et al. (2012), Meadows and
Robinson (2023), and Mueller (2009), which state that feeling challenged in school
or extracurricular settings is vital for their identity development. Coleman et al. (2015)
also indicated that gifted adolescents thrive in environments with like-minded peers
who share similar interests, fostering their identity growth. According to Meadows and
Robinson (2023), this dynamic can greatly inuence their overall motivation. Feeling
understood by peers and having their interests recognized can enhance gifted
adolescents’ self-esteem, as noted in studies by Cross and Frazier (2010), Lee et al.
(2012), and Meadows and Robinson (2023).
Both Baudson and Ziemes (2016), and Chen et al. (2018) have stated that a positive
perception of one’s giftedness could contribute to the development of individual
identity. Park et al (2023) indicate that gifted adolescents value academic achievement
as a part of their identity.
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3.2. Factors that are hindering identity development of gifted adolescents.
Studies by Cross et al. (2019) and Wiley (2020) showed that negative family relations
hinder the identity development of gifted adolescents. These authors suggested that
parents of gifted adolescents might have high or unrealistic expectations of their
children. This could be experienced as negative and may increase stress. According
to studies by Chen et al. (2018), Coleman et al. (2015), Cross et al. (2019), Ishak et al.
(2010), and Peterson et al. (2009), gifted adolescents may feel compelled to comply
with high expectations from both parents and peers. In contrast, the environments
of gifted adolescents do not always have such expectations. Baudson and Ziemes
(2016) noted that too many external stressors internalized by gifted adolescents can
hinder their identity development. Coleman and Cross (2014) also discussed this in
their study. In interviews with gifted adolescents, they expressed that they expect
the world to view them in a particular way and adopt these perceptions. According to
Coleman and Cross, the information they receive from others makes them hesitant to
say something positive about themselves.
Coleman and Cross state that the sense of being different seems to be more
prevalent in schools that do not fully understand the needs of gifted adolescents. Five
studies showed that stigmatization by peers, teachers, or parents hinders identity
development (Baudson, 2016; Cross et al., 2019; Peterson, 2009; Wiley, 2020;
Winsor, 2020). According to Peterson (2009), a gifted adolescent may become an
underachiever if peers, teachers, or parents view them negatively. Guthrie (2020)
described in her study, specically aimed at girls, how perfectionism can hinder
emotional development. She dened perfectionism as being driven by internal desires
or by expectations from the environment of gifted girls. The need to avoid failure is
often associated with perfectionism and can become part of the girl’s identity (Guthrie,
2020). Furthermore, Guthrie also mentioned that girls who grow up in cultures that
value submissiveness or conforming to the group often tend to hide their abilities.
3.3. Factors that promote code-switching by gifted adolescents.
There is limited research on code-switching among gifted adolescents. Only
Cross (2023) has published on this topic. Cross observed code-switching among
gifted students when peers with average abilities surrounded them. Based on his
observations, he suggested that gifted students often seek environments where they
can be themselves. Cross stated that code-switching may provide a safe space for
gifted students. He noted that these students seem to code-switch more exibly when
they are with like-minded peers and that code-switching is a valuable skill for everyone
because it helps navigate social settings. However, he questioned whether gifted
adolescents can fully develop their own identities if they are consistently focused on
creating safe spaces through code-switching. According to Cross, this phenomenon of
code-switching warrants further exploration. He asserts that increased understanding
of this strategy is crucial so that the parents and counselors of gifted adolescents can
teach them how to manage these adaptation strategies.
3.4. Factors that promote the forced choice dilemma.
There is also little recent research on the forced choice dilemma among gifted
adolescents. Only two studies could be found in the last 15 years, and these do not
clarify whether the forced-choice dilemma affects the identity development of gifted
adolescents. Jung et al. (2011) and Jung et al. (2012) examined the forced choice
dilemma in relation to the culture in which gifted adolescents grow up. Both studies
referenced G. Hofstede’s (2001) description of culture. Hofstede described six
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dimensions of culture that aim to portray cultures without judgment. Jung et al. (2011)
focused on the individualism versus collectivism dimension to determine whether
growing up in an individualistic or collectivistic culture contributes to the forced choice
dilemma faced by gifted adolescents.
Both studies examined who had a high need for peer acceptance and whether it
contributed to the forced choice dilemma. They did not nd convincing evidence that
gifted adolescents in some cultures tend to encounter the forced choice dilemma
sooner than those in other cultures. The authors stated that some highly gifted
adolescents may face the forced choice dilemma earlier because their abilities are
more advanced compared to non-gifted adolescents. Additionally, according to Jung
et al. (2012), gifted adolescents growing up in a culture of vertical allocentrism appear
more likely to experience the forced choice dilemma. In a vertically allocentric culture,
people are generally hierarchical, and individual interests are subordinate to the
collective (Jung, 2012). However, the authors of this research note that there is only
an indirect signicant difference in a mediating variable between vertical allocentrism
and the forced choice dilemma (Jung et al., 2012). According to Barber et al. (2015),
pullout classes or full-time gifted education may reduce the feeling of having to choose
between one’s high abilities and inclusion in the group. Barber et al. (2015) concluded
that gifted adolescents among like-minded peers are better able to be themselves
and, therefore, do not have to choose between adapting or being authentic. Lee et al.
(2012) mentioned that verbally strong gifted adolescents seem to experience more
social difculties than mathematically gifted adolescents. Verbally assertive gifted
adolescents stand out more due to their language use. As a result, verbally strong
gifted adolescents may withdraw from the group more quickly. According to Lee et
al. (2012), these adolescents could face more challenges when feeling they must
choose between social adaptation and demonstrating their high abilities.
3.5. Factors contributing to code-switching and the forced choice dilemma that
may affect identity development.
Three studies state that code-switching is about maintaining one’s identity in social
situations (Auer, 2005; Cashman, 2005; Gafaranga, 2005). According to these authors,
this means that the social environment in which one nds oneself contributes to code-
switching. Jørgensen (2005) argued that code-switching lets people know you belong
to a group and shows that you understand the social norms of that group. Jørgensen
also stated that adolescents form their social relations through code-switching. Six
studies asserted that gifted adolescents need to experience a connection within their
environment to develop their identity (Chen et al., 2018; Cross et al., 2019; Kane,
2020; Lavrijsen & Verschueren, 2023; Lee et al., 2012; Mueller, 2009).
At the same time, studies by Bakx et al. (2021), Coleman and Cross (2014), Cross
et al. (2019), and Pfeiffer (2021) showed that the needs of gifted adolescents do not
differ from those of their peers with average intellectual abilities; like their peers, they
seek social connections. In three studies, it was argued that a connection with their
parents, peers, teachers, and their high abilities is essential for the development of
gifted adolescents’ identity (Coleman et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2012; Mueller, 2009).
These authors believe that if the environment does not meet the expectations of gifted
adolescents, it hinders their identity development. Cross (2023) argued that if gifted
adolescents do not feel safe in their environment, they may code-switch to create
a safer place for themselves among peers with average abilities. However, Cross
suggested that seeking connections with non-gifted peers through code-switching
can compromise one’s identity. Baudson and Ziemes (2016) stated that a positive
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connection between gifted adolescents and their environment, where abilities are
recognized and acknowledged, could lead to fewer adaptation strategies from gifted
adolescents. Three studies indicated that sufcient intellectual challenge promotes
identity development in gifted adolescents (Coleman et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2012;
Mueller, 2009). This aligns with what Barber et al. (2015) mention in their study.
They described that the forced-choice dilemma occurs less frequently when gifted
adolescents are challenged in pull-out classes or adequately challenged at school.
According to Barber et al. (2015), in such cases, adaptation seems unnecessary
because they have enough like-minded peers.
3.6. Underachievement
Recognizing and acknowledging code-switching strategies and the forced-
choice dilemma in gifted adolescents can help them develop their full potential by
considering their cognitive abilities and mental well-being. Gifted adolescents seem
to underachieve by applying these strategies because they conceal their abilities.
Underachievement, in general, leads to negative consequences for the gifted
individual, such as lower well-being, a negative attitude towards school, decreased
academic performance, low value of their goals, and reduced overall quality of life
(Jackson & Jung, 2022; Moeld & Parker-Peters, 2019).
Usually, underachievement is addressed through counselling and instruction aimed at
helping students perform well again by, for example, improving their low motivation,
low self-efcacy, and attitude towards school while developing their metacognitive
skills (Siegle & McCoach, 2017). However, regarding code-switching strategies and
the forced-choice dilemma, underachievement does not necessarily stem from an
unstimulating environment but rather from a desire to connect.
A different approach to addressing this type of underachievement may be necessary.
Learning more about these strategies is important for better understanding them.
Recognizing these strategies might allow professionals to choose different methods
when dealing with an underachieving gifted adolescent.
Snyder and Linnenbrink-Garcia (2013) recommended a person-centred approach in
their study of underachievement, which is a holistic approach. This seems appropriate
when a gifted adolescent is code-switching or faced with a forced-choice dilemma. The
behaviors associated with code-switching and forced-choice dilemmas can arise from
a social environment that is unable or unwilling to engage with the gifted adolescent,
as well as from the inner needs of the connection-seeking gifted adolescent. According
to Raoof et al. (2024), underachievement may be inuenced by internal and external
factors, which also appears to be the case here. It is advisable to examine the entire
system surrounding the gifted adolescent and how that environment contributes to
code-switching and the forced-choice dilemma.
3.7. Follow up research
Follow-up research should consider what Lavrijsen and Verschueren (2023) mention
in their study about the mental health of gifted adolescents. They observe that gifted
adolescents often recruited for surveys are typically those already enrolled in gifted
programs. They questioned to what extent this group represents a true measure of
well-being. After all, if their needs are met, it supports their well-being (Coleman et al.,
2015; Lee et al., 2012; Meadows & Robinson, 2023; Mueller, 2009). Furthermore, it
should also be considered that code-switching and the forced choice dilemma make
this group of gifted adolescents less conspicuous due to these adaptation strategies.
This could result in gifted adolescents not being sufciently visible because, in practice,
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little knowledge about these phenomena exists, and the behavior surrounding these
phenomena will not be recognized.
Follow-up research should also study underachievement through code-switching and
the forced-choice dilemma, examining where both phenomena occur in the pathways
to the underachievement model (PUM) of Snyder and Linnenbrink-Garcia (2013). They
describe that the pathway to underachievement often starts with not being challenged
enough at a young age. Gifted adolescents may develop maladaptive beliefs about
their academic abilities or devalue schoolwork (Snyder & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2013).
In follow-up research, it might be interesting to explore how underachievement
embedded in the adaptation strategies of code-switching and the forced-choice
dilemma aligns with Snyder and Linnenbrink-Garcia’s achievement types (2013). This
could help us understand the processes leading to code-switching and the forced-
choice dilemma. With this knowledge, we can investigate which interventions are
most benecial for professionals when a gifted adolescent feels compelled to use
these adaptive strategies.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This integrative review aimed to gain broader and deeper knowledge about the
development of the identity of gifted adolescents and the role of code-switching and
the forced-choice dilemma in that development. Several factors, such as environment,
safety, and connection within social relations, as well as their high abilities, seem to
play a role in the identity development of gifted adolescents.
Factors that play a role in identity development also seem to inuence code-switching
strategies and the forced choice dilemma. It seems these adaptation strategies let
gifted adolescents choose between two evils. It is the choice of the gifted adolescent
not to showcase their high abilities to feel connected, which contributes to healthy
identity development. However, hiding these abilities means their environment cannot
recognise their potential, hindering their identity development. Nevertheless, it is
difcult for their environment to respond appropriately if capabilities are hidden.
When gifted adolescents seek safety and connection in their environment through
code-switching or the forced-choice dilemma, professionals may overlook what these
gifted adolescents are capable of cognitively. It is recommended that professionals
working with gifted adolescents gain more knowledge and recognise these strategies.
First, when adolescents with high abilities frequently adjust to their peers with
average abilities, it may lead to their environment not recognizing them. Second,
frequently adjusting could possibly hinder the development of one’s identity, given
that studies mention that if the needs of gifted adolescents are not sufciently met, it
could impede their identity development. Third, these adaptation strategies could be
seen as underachievement, which does not contribute to developing one’s potential.
Understanding these adaptation strategies helps better comprehend why gifted
adolescents use them, enabling more targeted assistance to be offered. Interventions
may need to focus less on concealing cognitive ability and more on the gifted
adolescent’s purpose, namely seeking safety and connection within their environment.
Interventions that focus on the value of learning or academic achievement may not
achieve their intended purpose because gifted adolescents often hide this aspect by
using these adaptation strategies.
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AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization, MarliesVisser; methodology, Marlies Visser and Lianne
Hoogeveen; software, n.a..; formal analysis, Marlies Visser.; investigation, Marlies
Visser.; resources, n.a..; data curation, n.a.; writing—original draft preparation,
Marlies Visser; writing—review and editing, Marlies Visser and Lianne Hoogeveen.;
supervision, Lianne Hoogeveen.; project administration, n.a..; funding acquisition,
n.a..”
FUNDING
This research received no external funding
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no conicts of interest.
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