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Anduli
Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales
ISSN: 1696-0270 • e-ISSN: 2340-4973
TRADE UNION PRACTICES AND WORKING
CONDITIONS OF CHAMBERMAIDS
PRÁCTICAS SINDICALES Y CONDICIONES DE
TRABAJO ENTRE LAS CAMARERAS DE PISO
J. David
Moral-Martín
jdavidmoralm@unizar.es
Universidad de Zaragoza
https://orcid.org/
0000-0003-4174-2855
Eleni
Ferri-Fuentevilla
elena.ferri@dstso.uhu.es
Universidad de Huelva
https://orcid.org/
0000-0001-6820-3611
Francisco
Estepa-Maestre
festmae@upo.es
Universidad Pablo Olavide,
Sevilla
https://orcid.org/
0000-0002-7130-041X
Abstract
Historically, women’s domestic work
in households has been the subject of
academic study that dates back to the 18th
and 19th centuries. But the speci c work
of chambermaids in hotels only began to
be studied in the early 2000s. The aim of
this study is to test the above hypothesis
and to identify research that has been
done on labour organization, working
conditions and health of housekeepers.
The methodology consists of systematically
reviewing the contributions on this issue
registered in indexed publications between
2000 and 2021. It is con rmed that the rst
publication is from 2003. Among the results,
the tendency of housekeepers to self-
organize, such as “Las Kellys” association
in Spain, stands out. The international
comparison indicates intersectionality
of discriminating factors increasing their
vulnerability. For example, forms of piece-
rate payment are linked to higher accident
rates, subcontracting increases and future
automation could have a negative impact
on labour negotiation. On the positive side,
it is hoped that sustainable tourism labels
will encourage decent working conditions
for hotel housekeepers.
Key words: chambermaids,
intersectionality, Las Kellys, organisation,
systematised review, working conditions
Resumen
Históricamente, el trabajo doméstico de las
mujeres en hogares ha sido objeto de estu-
dio académico que se remonta a los siglos
XVIII y XIX. Sin embargo el trabajo especí-
co de las camareras de piso en hoteles se
estudia solo desde los primeros años 2000.
El objetivo de este estudio es comprobar la
citada hipótesis e identi car lo investigado
sobre organización laboral, condiciones de
trabajo y salud de las camareras de piso. La
metodología consiste en revisar sistemática-
mente las contribuciones sobre la cuestión
registradas en publicaciones indexadas en-
tre 2000 y 2021. Se con rma que la primera
publicación es de 2003. Entre los resultados
destaca la tendencia de las camareras de
piso a auto-organizarse, como la asocia-
ción “Las Kellys” en España. La compara-
tiva internacional indica interseccionalidad
de factores discriminantes incrementando
su vulnerabilidad. Por ejemplo las formas
de pago a la pieza se vinculan con mayor
accidentalidad., la subcontratación aumenta
y la automatización futura pudiera repercutir
negativamente en la negociación laboral. En
positive, se confía que los sellos de turismo
sostenible incentiven condiciones de trabajo
dignas para las camareras de piso.
Palabras clave: camareras de piso, inter-
seccionalidad, Las Kellys, organización, re-
visión sistematizada, condiciones de trabajo.
Cómo citar este artí culo / Citation: Moral-Martin, J.David; Ferri-Fuentevilla, Eleni; Estepa-Maestre, Francisco
(2024). Trade union practices and working conditions of chambermaids. ANDULI 26 (2024) pp. 211-228. https://
doi.org/10.12795/anduli.2024.i26.10
Recibido: 14.12.2023 Revisado: 29.03.2024 Aceptado: 28.05.2024
Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 26 - 2024
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1. INTRODUCTION
Academic research on women’s domestic work has traditionally paid attention to
work in households, which, as noted below, has been interested in their working
conditions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. But a specic group such
as hotel housekeepers began to be studied in the early 2000s. In the literature on
domestic work, different terms can be found to refer to these women workers, such
as: “chambermaids”, “hotel housekeeper”, “hotel maids”, “hotel cleaners”, “room
attendants” and in Spain they were coined as “Las Kellys” (las que limpian / those
who clean) especially since 2015 that their association was created.
On historical studies, there are several examples at the European level, including
Wikander’s (1998) research on the debate around female wage labor between the
French Revolution and the mid-19th century, and that of her pupil, Zucca (2013),
who studied Italian domestic work between the 18th and 19th centuries. For the
same period it is worth mentioning, in the Spanish context, the study by Bartolomé
and Díaz (2017) on the artillery female of the Royal Factories of Liérganas and La
Clavada between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In Andalusia, Martínez and
Martínez (2017) also replicate and extend these investigations by adding in domestic
settings. These latter studies are indebted to the pioneering work of Borderías (1993)
on contemporary women workers in the Spanish telecommunications company:
Telefónica.
In the case of chambermaids, many best-known available references are
contemporary, dating from the 21st century, showing a worldwide professional
collective with apparently similar working conditions, described as “pitiful” by Patricia
Mantovano, director of the Union of Tourism, Hotel, and Food Service Workers of
Argentina, (Cañada, 2015:15). This is something that Esbenshade et al. (2006)
have contextualized by showing the way globalization has contributed to increasing
employment and prot in the tourism industry.
For example, in Spain, the 1970s were a milestone for the increase of chambermaids
as it was a period of touristic boom with strong demand for labour in the hotel and
catering sector resulting in emigration from inland to the coast areas. Around year
2006, more than three decades later, there came an economic boom during which
earlier efforts to analyse these workplaces can be found (Castellanos and Pedreño,
2006). Barely ve years later, a 2010 survey by the Comisiones Obreras trade union
investigated both women’s and men’s perceptions of employment and working
conditions in the hotel sector, with particular focus on the gender inequalities that were
created and perpetuated (Cañada, 2019). By way of background, Cañada (2019:69)
had undertaken a review of the scientic literature in countries of the Global North,
excluding Spain, focusing exclusively on working conditions and health, as his search
equations.
To some extent, academia has in the last years increased interest to research on this
group to make it more visible (Fernández and Torné, 2020; López and Medina, 2020).
Some research put focus on job insecurity issues (Cañada, 2019; Puech, 2007) and
its repercussions, especially in terms of occupational and mental health (Rosemberg
and Li, 2018) or concerning the gender-based experience of workplace accidents
(Ferri et al, 2020).
The invisibility of domestic workers in the political, social, and economic sphere has
also been a source of academic concern. This led many researchers at the beginning
of the 21st century to take an interest in this issue, raising the dilemma of how to
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Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre
study a group that is invisible to society (Hatton, 2017). The answer led to several
studies, such as Hunter and Watson (2006) who investigated housekeepers’ work
globally, arguing that the precariousness of their working conditions was hidden from
the public eye.
Media has given visibility to chambermaids. There is general agreement that this
working women’s group was globally acknowledged in the wake of the sombre incident
involving the arrest of Strauss-Kahn, former managing director of the International
Monetary Fund, on charges of sexually harassing a chambermaid in a New York hotel
in May 2011. This sudden appearance in the media was picked up by Regt (2011),
whose study focused on collectives working in intimate professional contexts. Further
research later called for greater visibility of the group by magnifying the impact of their
working conditions and their inuence on occupational health (Chela-Alvarez et al.,
2022).
A look at the question of occupational impact can be found in Oxenbridge and
Moensted (2011), who examined how the pay structure for housekeepers in Australian
hotels had a direct impact on physical injuries. It was shown that piece-rate pay,
or remuneration based on the number of rooms cleaned, meant that housekeepers
worked harder to earn a living wage at the expense of safe and healthy working
methods.
Other perspectives have been applied to this issue of occupational impact like
intersectionality: understood as the way in which different types of discrimination
are connected to and affect each other (Marx, 2018), (= unfair treatment because
of a person’s sex, race, etc.) along with its relation with insecure work (Cañada,
2023; Albarracín and Castellanos, 2013; Bernadete, 2003; Brunet & Moral-Martín,
2020). The resulting compendium has concluded that discrimination in the form of
‘intersecting inequality’ - i.e. discrimination based on a person’s age, country of origin,
disability, level of education, or sexual orientation - is a key determinant of exposure
to and experience of insecure work, with hotel maids being a clear example of this, as
reported in the article by Hsieh et al. (2017).
Studies on the impact of the global 2019 COVID indicate worsening health and
working conditions of chambermaids because of the need for improved hygiene and
cleanliness in hotel establishments without increasing the time available per room
(Rosemberg, 2020). In the case of Spain, the government designed a “protective
shield” to mitigate the effects of the pandemic but it did not cover many chambermaids
as the nature of their temporary contracts meant that many of them were not actually
working and with a payroll when the state of emergency was declared (Moral-Martín,
2020).
1.1. The case of Spain
The case of Spain has attracted the interest of researchers especially since in 2015
the group of chambermaids, colloquially known as “Las Kellys” (las que limpian/ those
who clean) organized itself under an associative form that, without assuming the
formula of a trade union, became one of the best known social agents for the socio-
labour defense of their working, wage and social conditions (Moreno, 2016).
“Las Kellys” organisational birth arose from a stubborn criticism of the responsibility
of the most representative trade union confederations in establishing its working
conditions and salaries. On their website they state that: “All, without exception, are
responsible for their neglect in the collective agreements that have been signed over
the years in the different communities” (kellys.es).
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“Las Kellys” adopted “cyber unionism” which meant leveraging technology for collective
action beyond company control. Additionally, their effective use of storytelling and
social media, as highlighted by Fernández and Tomé (2020), underscores the power
of personal narratives to communicate demands for better employment rights. “Las
Kellys” brought chambermaids’ issues to the forefront of the Spanish digital media
agenda. Their engagement with employers’ associations, government, and unions
showcases their role as a social actor challenging the outsourcing of room attendants
and advocating for improved working conditions.
In Spain, there have been also similar changes. For example, the so-called “Kelly Law”
was enacted, establishing a register of hotels in which employment practices would
be safeguarded through the creation of a quality and fair work standard. Furthermore,
several work-related contingencies have been recognized as occupational illnesses by
occupational accident mutual insurance societies, such as bursitis and carpal tunnel
syndrome; both inammatory conditions that can become chronic and incapacitating
(Moral-Martín, 2020).
The overview of the problems of the chambermaids’ work group in the previous pages
provides an indicative overview of the interest and topicality of the research question.
Our objectives are to test the hypothesis that research on chambermaids’ domestic
work took off at the beginning of the 20th century and to identify worldwide advances
in knowledge about their work organization, working conditions and impact on health.
2. METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS
The methodology applied to achieve the objectives outlined above consists of
a literature review from 2000 to 2021 in indexed journals and using systematized
and qualitative criteria (Hart, 2008). The selection criteria, as outlined in table 1 are
studies on organizational practices and working conditions, job insecurity and impact
on health of chambermaids.
The methodology used was typical of systematised journals in the Social Sciences,
using the SALSA Framework and its four stages as a reference: Search, Appraisal,
Synthesis, and Analysis (Grant and Booth, 2009). For the purposes of this study, a
Microsoft Excel database was designed to synthesise and systematise the information
(See Annex 1).
The rst and second stages, search and appraisal, provide the evidence base and
include the principles of systematisation (Codina, 2018). During the third (analysis)
and fourth (synthesis) stages, methodological approaches based on grounded theory
(Sandelowski and Barroso, 2007) are used, with a set of inductive strategies to
analyse the data. The latter stages are described in the research results section.
Stage 1 or search was conducted inside four nationally and internationally recognised
academic databases, namely, WOS, Scopus, Proquest, and Dialnet, by designing
search equations corresponding to the research objectives. Each database has its
own way of expressing the search equations, so the keywords and Boolean operators
were customised while maintaining a common base xed according to the subject
matter under investigation (see Figure 1). For the Proquest database, a Social Science
research area or domain was specied to rene the search results. In Dialnet’s case,
the search equation was performed without the help of Boolean operators and using
only the word “camareras de piso” in Spanish, as this was the expression that yielded
the best results in both quantitative and qualitative terms.
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Figure 1. Data on Search and appraisal of Systematized review
Source: own elaboration.
Regarding stage 2 or Appraisal, as Figure 1 shows, work began with a document
bank (Yin, 2010) of 279 publications, which was reduced to 72 after applying the rst
inclusion and exclusion criteria lter agreed by the team of researchers (see Table
1). At this stage, certain studies were excluded because they were not thematically
relevant to our object of study. It should be noted that some 21 studies appeared in
multiple bibliographic databases but were counted only once in the selected sample
(51 publications).
The process of searching for and selecting research based on the variables outlined
above yielded 28 high impact publications (see Annex I) indexed in 4 databases
between 2000-2021: Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, ProQuest and Dialnet. In this
regard, it should be noted that the rst article cited is published in 2003.
A second lter was then applied (see table 1) based on the articles’ qualitative
criteria, obtaining a nal selection of 28 publications for the third (analysis) and fourth
(synthesis) phases of the systematised review (see table 1). The resulting articles
were analysed based on their title and abstract. Where a decision could not be made
using the title and abstract alone, the entire paper was read.
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria applied to selected articles
Filter Inclusion Criteria Exclusion criteria
FIRST
FILTER
Studies on the socio-labour situation of chambermaids.
No speci c criteria have
been de ned. (Exclu-
sion of those that do
not meet the inclusion
criteria)
Studies focusing on the organisational practices and
Working conditions, job insecurity, and impact on health
of chambermaids.
Timeframe: 2000-2021.
SE-
COND
FILTER
Articles indexed in impact journals (Q1-Q4).
Books or book chapters indexed in the Scholarly
Publishers Indicators (SPI) (Q1 national and Q1-Q2
international).
Source: own elaboration.
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3. RESULTS
The rst result of the study is the conrmation of the hypothesis that systematic
studies on chambermaids located in indexed journals have been published in the
21st century. Twenty-eight articles have been selected and the rst one is from 2003.
The results of the various analyses and syntheses carried out are presented below.
First, the annual evolution of publications on chambermaids, the research techniques
applied in the studies and the topics addressed are analyzed. Secondly, the most
outstanding results of the selected research on chambermaids’ labour organizations
and mobilizations are synthesized. Thirdly, the most outstanding results of selected
research on working conditions and their impact on job satisfaction, job insecurity or
vulnerability and health are summarized.
3.1. Analysis of publications: evolution, techniques and themes
Although the search for studies on chambermaids was carried out from 2000 to 2021,
the rst publication found that met the selection conditions was from 2003, so the
range of selected publications goes from 2003 to 2021. Graph 1 shows in absolute
terms the number of publications organized by impact factor, subject matter, year of
publication, type of research, and the methodology used to obtain the results.
Graph 1. Frequency typology systematised review. Absolute terms. N=28
Source: own elaboration.
From the data obtained, it is possible to extract a prole of publications on
chambermaids that has evolved considerably over time, with greater prevalence
in recent years probably related to insecure working conditions following services
outsourcing and the chambermaids’ capacity to organise and channel their demands
in a more structured way (Ferreira, Rivas, and Viana, 2017).
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Methodologically speaking, most of the publications use qualitative research
techniques in nature, mostly interview and focus group techniques. The aim is to
explore and gain understanding of, or interpret the meanings, narratives, and
conditions of production of the chambermaids’ socio-labour situation, based on their
own experiences and perceptions. However, quantitative approaches using the
questionnaire technique also are used by some researchers, although these tend to
be oriented towards occupational health (Daba, Dessie and Haile 2019; Rosemberg
et al. 2019) and job performance (Rosemberg and Li, 2018).
Graph 2. Frequency of topics per year. Absolute terms (n=28).
Source: own elaboration
On the other hand, focusing on the themes (Graph 2), the most frequently published
studies selected concern employment conditions and job insecurity (n= 16/28), and
since 2018 studies covering the organisation and unionisation of the collective have
taken centre stage. In fact, the most recent studies show an overlap between the
two central themes of trade union organisation and working conditions (Moral-Martín
y Brunet, 2021). Issues such as gender, health, and Covid-19 are also areas that,
like trade union organisation, have become more prominent since 2018, especially
Covid-19 which has become more pressing since 2020.
3.2. Labor organizing among chambermaids
For the academic world, the unexpected appearance of a chambermaids’ organisation
called “Las Kellys” (acronym for the Those who Clean), made up of female workers,
typi ed in Spain as unorganised and low-skilled, in the middle of the second decade
of the 21st century (Cañada, 2015), has been, as an object of study, one of the
great contributions to and insights into the study of social organisations and, more
speci cally, the area of trade union self-organisation (Alcalde-González, Gálvez, and
Valenzuela, 2021; Brunet and Moral-Martín, 2020) and working conditions (Otegui,
2023; Hsieh et al., 2016; Kensbock et al., 2016).
This section focuses exclusively on the aspect of organizing among hotel housekeepers
worldwide with special emphasis on the quasi-union organizing among ‘Las Kellys’ as
a relevant case of self-organization. We will delve into selected studies that address
the union practices of this collective, providing a clear insight into the strategies and
dynamics of self-organization within the labor context of the so named ‘Las Kellys” in
Spain and similar groups in other countries.
In this vein, Puech’s (2007) work focused on studying the differences between part-
time and full-time French hotel maids and highlighted how temporary work exacerbated
and reinforced the differences between these groups because of subcontracting. At
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the same time, this situation aggravated internal inequalities between workers, which
triggered a series of collective conicts and led to the call for several strikes. For her
part, Trige (2021) added a feminist and historical perspective, looking at the working
conditions of Filipina chambermaids in Copenhagen hotels (Holland) in the 1970s
and 1990s. Her interest focused on highlighting the different trade union practices
that took place in this environment, both by the Danish hotel workers’ union and
the aforementioned chambermaids who instigated a period of self-organization. As
a result, this group of migrant women played a key role in mobilising labour disputes
and (re)inventing trade union strategies at the time.
Similarly, it is worth mentioning the study by López and Medina (2020), which analyzes
the role played in Spain by “Las Kellys” as an association demanding their labor rights due
to the historical invisibility of this predominantly female occupation. Against the device that
renders them invisible, “Las Kellys” association has built a social actor that repositions the
room attendant, at least symbolically, as the structural foundation of the hotels. Based on
this assertion and on visibility as a critical function of hotels, “Las Kellys” has established
dialogues with the employer’s association, the government, and the unions to halt the
outsourcing of room attendants and reposition them as direct employees of the hotels.
Thus, the “Las Kellys” movement emerges as a social actor through which to dispute their
working conditions in the political arena (López and Medina, 2020; Cañada, 2018).
In Spain, although “las Kellys” is an association, they act very much as a trade
union organization. They have broadened the denition of a trade union to include
emotional mutual support practices (Moral-Martín, 2020). Along similar lines there
are the studies carried out by Moral-Martín (2020) and Brunet and Moral-Martín
(2020), who applied the concept of new trade union movements to their research on
chambermaids, the main aspects of which have been extensively studied from the
perspective of trade union renewal.
The above studies highlight the difculty of integrating “Las Kellys” into most
representative trade unions, while at the same time highlighting the key reasons
why they became a self-organized trade union movement. Of particular interest here
is that certain historical considerations made it difcult to predict their association,
such as, for example, being part of a feminized and low-skilled profession, together
with a highly dispersed workforce and little support historically from the sector’s most
representative trade unions (Moral-Martín, 2020).
More recently, Fernández and Tomé’s (2020) study on the repercussions of the last
economic crisis and “Las Kellys”’ use of social media should also be noted. Specically,
they analyzed how storytelling was used to successfully communicate to society their
demands for better employment rights. In summary, “Las Kellys” have stood out as
the primary social force that has brought the issue of chambermaids to the Spanish
digital media agenda, surpassing unions and other social actors.
Their communication strategy revolves around the predominant use of the rst
person, as “Las Kellys” consider it essential to share their personal stories in their
communication. These narratives are valued by journalists and yield signicant
results on social media, underscoring the importance of this communicative approach.
“Las Kellys” employ a close and colloquial language, utilizing a straightforward and
appealing communication style lled with authentic personal stories (Fernández
and Tomé, 2020). The issue has not only become visible academically but has also
had a major media impact in recent years (Liladrie, 2010). We refer to the women’s
numerous interviews in various media and their manifestos to understand why they
have emerged (Fernández and Tomé, 2020).
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3.3. Research on working conditions, job insecurity, and impact on health.
The following is an analysis of the contributions identied on chambermaids’ working
conditions in studies conducted in different countries. Among the issues that have
most interested researchers are those presented below, namely: factors affecting job
satisfaction with the job, followed by factors of vulnerability and abuse in working
conditions, and nally, trends in the impact on physical and psychological health.
3.3.1. Aspects: degree of satisfaction
To talk about the working conditions of hotel maids is to highlight a situation very
similar to that endured by the so-called “precariat” described by Standing (2011).
Although this concept is more prevalent in research about young people than on
women, it is not exclusive to young people, as Eriksson (2009) shows in his study
on the constraints between the market and ‘exicurity’ in housekeeping in Danish
hotels. It is worth noting the fact that wages of Danish hotel maids are higher than in
most other countries, especially for unskilled workers who represent a considerable
segment of hotel sector employment. This has led to greater job satisfaction, despite
this being seen as demanding work with the same high workload as elsewhere.
From a cultural gender perspective, Balbuena and López (2021), through their
research on the employment status of chambermaids in hotels in Cancun (Mexico),
highlight how limited formal education, low economic standing, and immigration status
mean that they endure working conditions that, despite being arduous, are positively
regarded given the difculties faced in entering the regional labor market.
Looking through the lens of collaboration, Brody’s (2016) book shows how involving
housekeepers in workplace design can help improve their working conditions and
therefore have a positive impact on their relationship with management. A similar
nding was reported by Kensbock et al. (2016), who interviewed 46 room attendants
working in a ve-star hotel in South East Queensland, Australia. Their study highlights
the need for greater recognition for room attendants, for them to be seen as a
valuable community with practical knowledge that could be used to improve day-to-
day operations, enhancing guest interactions and tourism service experiences.
3.3.2. Factor: vulnerability and abuse
One of the elements connected to vulnerability and abuse in labor relation of chambermaids
is intersectionality. Using qualitative methodology, Hsieh et al. (2017) studied Latina
housekeepers, mainly from Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, in hotels in
the southeastern United States, through 27 in-depth interviews. Their ndings refer to the
additional discrimination of intersecting structural aspects such as social class, gender,
ethnicity, nationality, and immigration status. In the United States those led to a higher
degree of vulnerability and, consequently, higher levels of workplace abuse.
Similar publications present housekeepers as a vulnerable, low-skilled and undervalued
group, often coming from abroad, and that, paradoxically, the more insecure the job, the
higher the level of job loyalty. In fact, the publications analyzed illustrate how they are
caught in a spiral of exibility, low pay and plural and intertwined insecurity, reinforced
by the dependency practices of the hotel sector (Guégnard and Mériot, 2010).
In addition to the above studies on job insecurity connected to intersectionality, there
is also research that focuses exclusively on class division. In this sense, the study
by Guibert, Lazuech, and Troger (2013) analyses the specic case of chambermaids
in luxury hotels and compares them with other female colleagues, concluding that
their supposedly better working conditions began to decline thanks to changes in
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business management techniques, and eventually became standardized and
downgraded across the board. Similarly, Norrild and Korstanje (2021) further explored
the motivations of chambermaids and housekeepers who have been professionally
trained to cater to high-net-worth tourists.
In Spain, several studies have addressed the employment situation of chambermaids,
with the 2018 research standing out for highlighting the effects of outsourcing as
the main cause of the pronounced deterioration in the working conditions of these
workers between the last economic crisis and the end of the second decade of the
21st century. Cañada´s study identies the 2012 labor reform as a key factor in the
decline of their working conditions, emphasizing the need to address the impacts of
outsourcing on the employment of chambermaids (Cañada, 2018).
According to Rydzik and Sharma (2021), as we enter a coming historical period of
application of new technologies, we must consider that the expansion of intelligent
automation in tourism workplaces could risk exacerbating inequalities and
precarisation of lower-skilled workers, exposing them to job losses and dislocation,
dehumanising their role and gradually automating them out.
3.3.3. Impact on physical and emotional health
These insecure working conditions, typical of chambermaids, seemed to have a
major impact on their physical and emotional health. Hsieh et al. (2016), through
interviews with Latina chambermaids, report that respondents were exposed to
physical, chemical, and social hazards in the workplace, as well as suffering from
musculoskeletal injuries. Also, Daba, Dessie and Haile (2019) studied the impact of
risk factors on the development of neck and upper limb pain among low-wage hotel
housekeepers in the city of Gondar (Ethiopia).
The study by Ferri et al. (2020), which deals with chambermaids who have suffered
an accident at work, concludes that there is no inexion point before and after the
accident. Changes made after an accident are minimal, given the low baseline of a
system with insecure working conditions, poor training, and the high level of medication
needed to be able to cope with tasks in the private and public spheres. Moreover, an
accident or temporary incapacity does not relieve the maids of their work and domestic
responsibilities but puts them in an even weaker and more vulnerable position.
This vulnerability spreading to the private sphere and referred to as social harm, has
been studied by Moral-Martín (2020) and Ferri et al. (2020). Both authors concluded
that there has been a feminization of this social harm, understood as a damage that
goes beyond the strictly professional sphere, as the consequences of accidents
extend to the domestic and private lives of chambermaids.
We now turn to the psychosocial aspects of this group’s work, beginning with the
study by Rosemberg et al. (2019) who examined the associations between work
and non-work stressors (allostatic load) and health outcomes among hotel maids,
nding signicant relationships. In connection with the psychosocial issue, the study
by Hsieh et al. (2016) should be included, which reveals the presence of certain
psychological factors in the workplace environment, such as the time pressure to
clean rooms quickly and occupational stress resulting from workplace abuse.
Similar results are found at the Spanish level by Chela-Álvarez et al. (2021) who
analyzed the stress factors perceived by housekeepers in hotels in the Balearic Islands
from a gender perspective. They point to both the pressure the women are under
and work-related stress factors, including high levels of job strain (Rosemberg et al.,
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Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre
2019), as causes of their physical, psychological, and emotional burnout. The work-
home combination is also be mentioned as it clearly relates to the gender issue. This
is a situation treated as an additional relevant factor increasing the stress levels of
chambermaids and exacerbating their physical exhaustion (Chela-Álvarez et al., 2021).
4. DISCUSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The aims of this research were, rst, to test the hypothesis that relevant research on
chambermaids starts in the 21st century and, second, to identify the main contributions
on their labor organization, working conditions and impact on health.
The methodology applied consisted of a systematic review of literature on the issue,
between 2020 and 2021 in publications indexed in databases such as WOS, Scopus,
Proquest, and Dialnet. For this purpose, search equations corresponding to the research
objectives were designed and 28 articles that met the selection criteria were selected.
The results obtained refer rst to the volume of contributions, the techniques used,
and the main topics addressed. The publications are from 2003 onwards, conrming
the hypothesis that the issue is addressed in the 21st century. And the pace
of publications is slow, only 5 between 2013 and 2016. From 2016 onwards, the
number of annual contributions doubles and from 2020 onwards, it triples. As for the
techniques used in the research, qualitative techniques predominate in 90% of the
studies and quantitative techniques are applied in 10%. In terms of topics, studies on
working conditions predominate in 39% followed by those addressing organizational
aspects (25%), precariousness (18%) and health (10%). Until 2018, contributions
were on working conditions or precariousness. It will be from 2019 when the topic of
work organization and health will start to be addressed.
On labor organization and union practices, a strong tendency towards self-organization
is established in the studies on Holland and Spain. In Holland it is the case of the
Philippine immigrant chambermaids in the hotels of Copenhagen (Holland) in 1970
and 1980 who reinvent union practices and self-organization. In Spain, it is the case
of the association of “Las Kellys” created in 2015 and self-organized in the absence
of support from the most representative unions and because it is a feminized and
geographically dispersed workforce. Their self-organization will allow them to gain
visibility and to present themselves as the structural foundation of the hotels as well
as to establish a dialogue with employers’ organizations to stop subcontracting and to
advocate for their reinstatement as direct hotel workers. On the other hand, the case
of France stands out for the strikes managed by the unions in protest the inequality
between temporary subcontracted workers and full-time workers.
Regarding the media, studies reveal that they have played a relevant role in giving
visibility and strength to chambermaids’ labor organizations. Their procedure of telling
personal stories, relying on the colloquial language of women workers, is conrmed
as a successful communication strategy to convey the demands for better labor rights
to the public. Through authentic narratives and effective communication strategies,
they have managed to challenge invisibility and advocate for better labor rights.
In relation to the studies on working conditions selected, the topics are mainly
job satisfaction, discrimination and abuse, and impact on health. On satisfaction
it is established that wage improvements increase satisfaction at equal workload,
according to the experience of the Danish case. However, the piece-rate tends to lead
to self-exploitation and accentuates the risk of accidents, and in the case of Australian
hotels a direct impact on physical injuries was found.
Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 26 - 2024
• 222 •
In developing country contexts with precarious labor markets for women, the
mere fact of getting a job in tourist hotels is already a source of social distinction
(Cancun, Mexico) and satisfaction. A third satisfaction factor identied by research
is the involvement of chambermaids in the design of their workplace, which means
recognition by hotel management of their know-how (hotels in Australia).
In relation to vulnerability and abuse resulting from disadvantageous working
conditions, studies reveal that it tends to increase among chambermaids with the
intersectionality or conuence of different forms of discrimination: by class, gender,
educational level, ethnicity and migratory status. This was established in the case
study of Latina workers in southeastern U.S. hotels. In general, there is a trend to
contracting terms being different for nationals and immigrants, for those hired on a
permanent basis and those with a succession of temporary contracts, and between
those hired on a full-time or a part-time basis.
Other trends observed are the increase in the outsourcing of the cleaning of rooms in
hotels and the disappearance of the difference in working conditions between luxury
hotels and the rest. These trends are expected to continue as we move towards a
technological context of automation.
Regarding the impact of working conditions on health, studies establish a relationship
between job insecurity and health risks. Exposure to chemical risk, musculoskeletal
accidents, neck and upper limb pain (case of hotel housekeepers in Goldan, Ethiopia).
The accident rate in the workplace is attributed in part to the fact that job training is
scarce and to the tendency to take medication to withstand long hours in the public
sphere in addition to those in their private life. Moreover, an accident at work does not
relieve them of their domestic responsibilities.
Regarding psychological health, studies establish a connection between stressors
outside and inside the workplace. Among the psychological pressure factors, the
imposition of a time limit to clean rooms more quickly is noted. In general, pressure
at work contributes to the emotional, physical and psychological exhaustion of the
workers. And the combination of work outside and inside the home is considered a
gender issue and increases their physical exhaustion.
This study has laid the groundwork for understand the interconnection between
working conditions, occupational health, and social mobilization efforts in this
specic sector. The review carried out positions “Las Kellys” association of Spain as
outstanding catalyst for change, bringing attention to the intricacies of chambermaids’
labor realities and advocating for meaningful improvements in their working conditions
and overall well-being.
For future studies, there is a need to increase international collaboration for joint
research and knowledge sharing among researchers. The complexities interwinding
working conditions, job insecurity, and health impacts require further exploration,
with potential avenues including an in-depth examination of the global context, com-
parative analyses, and longitudinal studies. It would be interesting to address the
quantitative research gap by conducting a survey to explore the different proles of
chambermaids internationally and to see if differences exist in the narratives on wor-
king conditions, health impacts, and involvement in trade union movements. From a
different perspective, future research could also address the evolving nature of cyber
unionism, exploring its effectiveness, challenges, and potential adaptation to different
labor contexts.
• 223 •
Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre
Annex I. High impact publications indexed between 2000-2021
in Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, ProQuest and Dialnet.
Author Topic Year Journal IF
1 Trige
Organizing against all Odds: Filipina
chambermaids in Copenhagen,
1970s–1990s
2021 Women´s History
Review Q2
2 Moral-Martín
Why have oor housekeepers
been organized? Some keys and
interpretations from the trade union
revitalization
2020 Revista Española de
Sociología Q2
3 Chakraborty
Narratives of precarious work and
social struggle: Women support ser-
vice workers in India’s information
technology sector
2019 Labour, Capital an
Society Q4
4 Cañada, E. Too precarious to be inclusive? Ho-
tel maid employment in Spain 2018 Tourism Geographies Q1
5
Guibert,
Lazuech &
Troger
Chambermaids in luxury hotels. The
fall in social status of an invisible
elite
2013 Formation Emploi Q3
6 Puech
Cleaning time, protest time: em-
ployment and working conditions
for hotel maids
2007 Sociologie du travail Q3
7 Eriksson
Working at the boundary between
market and exicurity: Housekee-
ping in Danish hotels
2009 International Labour
Review Q2
8Guégnard &
Mériot
Housekeepers in various European
countries 2010 Travail et emploi Q4
9Çiçek, Zencir
& Kozak Women in Turkish tourism 2017
Journal of Hospi-
tality and Tourism
Management
Q1
10 Rosemberg
et al.
Stressors, allostatic load, and health
outcomes among women hotel
housekeepers: A pilot study
2019
Journal of Occupatio-
nal and Environmental
Hygiene
Q3
11 Chela-Álvarez
et al.
Perceived factors of stress and
its outcomes among hotel house-
keepers in the Balearic Islands: A
qualitative approach from a gender
perspective
2021
International Journal
of Environmental
Research and Public
Health
Q2
12 Balbuena &
López
Cancun hotel Chambermaids and
their perceptions of their own wor-
king conditions: A cultural perspecti-
ve of gender in tourism
2021 Investigaciones
turísticas Q4
13 Moral-Martín
The Need for Trade Union Revita-
lisation: An Opportunity for Other
Organisational Proposals
2021
CIRIEC-Espana
Revista de Econo-
mia Publica, Social y
Cooperativa
Q1
14 Norrild &
Korstanje
Maids and housekeepers at luxury
hotels: Life stories in hotels of Bue-
nos Aires, Argentina.
2021 International Journal of
Tourism Anthropology Q3
Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 26 - 2024
• 224 •
Author Topic Year Journal IF
15 Ferri, Rodrí-
guez & Rivas
Feminization of social damage.
Analysis of everyday life in cham-
bermaid and local police after an
accident at work
2020 Prisma Social Q3
16 Fernández &
Tomé
The use of storytelling and rst-per-
son narratives in communication by
las Kellys as a reference for NGOs
2020 Profesional de la
Información Q1
17 López &
Medina
The Kellys and tourism: from the
invisibility of care to political visibility 2020 Digithum Q3
18 Daba, Dessie
& Haile.
The impact of work-related risk fac-
tors on the development of neck and
upper limb pain among low wage
hotel housekeepers in Gondar town,
Northwest Ethiopia: institution-based
cross-sectional study
2019
Environmental health
and preventive
medicine
Q2
19 Rosemberg
&Li
Effort-Reward Imbalance and Work
Productivity Among Hotel Housekee-
ping Employees: A Pilot Study
2018 Workplace health &
Safety Q2
20 Trige
A Philippine History of Denmark:
From Pioneer Settlers to Perma-
nently Temporary Workers
2017
Philippine Studies:
Historical and Ethno-
graphic Viewpoints
Q1
21 Hsieh, et al. Perceived workplace mistreatment:
Case of Latina hotel housekeepers 2017
WORK: a journal of
prevention assessment
and rehabilitation
Q2
22 Hsieh et al.
Work Conditions and Health
and Well-Being of Latina Hotel
Housekeepers
2016 Journal of Immigrant
and Minority Health Q2
23 Kensbock
et al.
Performing: Hotel room attendants’
employment experiences 2016 Annals of Tourism
Research Q1
24
Esbenshade
J, Mitrosky
M, Morgan E
et al
Prots, pain and pillows:Hotels and
Housekeepers in San Diego 2006
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospita-
lity Management
Q1
25 Brody, D. Housekeeping by Design: Hotels
and Labor 2016 University of Chicago
Press Q2
26 Bernadete, M.
Cleaning ladies and night watch-
men: a gendered approach to preca-
rious work in a hotel in France
2003 Cahiers du genre Q4
27 Brunet y
Moral-Martín
New Social Organisations. Trade
unionism in the face of the new
model of accumulation.
2020 Antrhopos Q2
28 Moral-Martín,
D.
Tourism and Covid-19. The view
from the chambermaids’ point of
view
2020 Akal Q1
Source: own elaboration.
• 225 •
Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre
Conicts of interest:
The authors declare that there is no conict of interest.
Authors’ contributions:
David Moral-Martín: Conceptualization, Writing- review &editing, Formal analysis,
Original Draft, Validation. Elena Ferri: Methodology, Writing, Software, Original Draft,
Supervision. Francisco Estepa: Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Supervision,
Validation.
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